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Metallurgy in China has a protracted history, with the earliest metal objects in China courting again to round 3,000 BCE. Nearly all of early steel gadgets present in China come from the North-Western Region (primarily Gansu and Qinghai, 青海). China was the earliest civilization to use the blast furnace and produce forged iron.[1]

Copper[edit]Archaeological evidence indicates that the earliest metallic objects in China were made within the late fourth millennium BCE. Copper was usually the earliest metallic to be used by humanity, and was utilized in China since a minimum of 3000 BCE.[2][3]

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Early metal-using communities have been discovered at the Qijia and Siba websites in Gansu. The metallic knives and axes recovered in Qijia apparently level to some interactions with Siberian and Central Asian cultures, in particular with the Seima-Turbino complex,[5] or the Afanasievo culture.[6] Archeological evidence points to plausible early contact between the Qijia tradition and Central Asia.[5] Similar websites have been present in Xinjiang within the west and Shandong, Liaoning and Inner Mongolia in the east and north. The Central Plain websites related to the Erlitou culture additionally contain early metalworks.[7]

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Copper manufacturing, more advanced than jade working, step by step appeared within the Yangshao period (5000-3000 BCE). Jiangzhai is the only place where copper artifacts were discovered in the Banpo tradition. Archaeologists have discovered remains of copper metallurgy in varied cultures from the late fourth to the early third millennia BCE. These include the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the Hongshan culture (4700-2900) and copper slag at the Yuanwozhen site. This signifies that inhabitants of the Yellow River valley had already learned how one can make copper artifacts by the later Yangshao period.[8]

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The Qijia culture (c. 2500-1900) of Qinghai, Gansu, and western Shaanxi produced copper and bronze utilitarian items and gold, copper, and bronze ornaments. The earliest metalworks on this area are discovered at a Majiayao site at Linjia, Dongxiang, Gansu.[7] "Their dates range from 2900 to 1600 BCE. These metal objects signify the Majiayao 馬家窯 sort of the Majiayao culture (c. 3100-2700 BCE), Zongri 宗日 Culture (c. 3600-2050 BCE), Machang 馬廠 Type (c. 2300-2000 BCE), Qijia 齊家 Culture (c. 2050-1915 BCE), and Siba 四壩 Culture (c. 2000-1600 BCE)."[9]

At Dengjiawan, in the Shijiahe site complex in Hubei, some pieces of copper had been discovered; they're the earliest copper objects found in southern China.[10] The Linjia site (林家遺址, Línjiā yízhǐ) has the earliest proof for bronze in China, relationship to c. 3000 BCE.[11]

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Bronze[edit]

Main article: Bronze Age ChinaBronze know-how was imported to China from the steppes.[12] The oldest bronze object found in China was a knife found at a Majiayao culture site in Dongxiang, Gansu, and dated to 2900-2740 BC.[13] Further copper and bronze objects have been found at Machang-interval sites in Gansu.[14] Metallurgy unfold to the center and lower Yellow River region in the late third millennium BC.[15] Contacts between the Afanasievo tradition and the Majiayao culture and the Qijia tradition have been thought-about for the transmission of bronze expertise.[16] From around 2000 BCE, forged bronze objects such as the socketed spear with single facet hook were imported and adapted from the Seima-Turbino culture.[17]

The Erlitou tradition (c. 1900 - 1500 BCE), Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 - 1046 BCE) and Sanxingdui tradition (c. 1250 - 1046 BCE) of early China used bronze vessels for rituals (see Chinese ritual bronzes) as well as farming implements and weapons.[18] By 1500 BCE, excellent bronzes were being made in China in massive quantities, partly as a display of standing, and as many as 200 large pieces have been buried with their proprietor to be used within the afterlife, as in the Tomb of Fu Hao, a Shang queen.

Within the tomb of the first Qin Emperor and multiple Warring States interval tombs, extraordinarily sharp swords and other weapons were found, coated with chromium oxide, which made the weapons rust resistant.[19][20][21] The layer of chromium oxide used on these swords was 10 to 15 micrometers and left them in pristine condition to this day. Chromium was first scientifically attested within the 18th century.[22]

The start of latest breakthroughs in metallurgy occurred in direction of the Yangzi River's south in China's southeastern region within the Warring States Period similar to gilt-bronze swords.[23]

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Section-mold casting[edit]There are two varieties of bronze smelting methods in early China, particularly the part mold course of and the misplaced-wax process. The earliest bronze ware present in China is the bronze knife (F20: 18) unearthed on the Majiayao in Linjia, Dongxiang, Gansu, and dated to about 3000 BC.[24] This bronze knife uses the section mold process, which is spliced by two molds.

The section mold course of is a commonly used bronze casting technique within the Shang Dynasty, that's, the mud is selected, and after choosing, filtration, showering, deposition and different procedures, the mud is cooled to a average hardness as a backup, and then the mud is made according to the form of the vessel to be made. There are two forms of molds, which is internal mold and outer mold. The inside mold is barely the shape of the bronze ware, without decoration; the outer model should consider the division of the bronze ware after casting in the future, that's, the block in the course of the production of the clay mannequin, and in addition engrave the inscriptions and inscriptions of the bronze ware decoration on the clay model. After the clay mold are completed, put it in a cool place to dry in the shade, after which put it into the furnace for roasting. After the mold are heated, they turn out to be pottery molds unearthed throughout trendy archaeological discoveries. After the pottery mold is fired, don't rush out of the furnace. After the copper furnace has liquefied the required copper, the pottery mold that nonetheless has residual temperature is taken out and poured. In this fashion, the temperature distinction between the copper liquid and the pottery mold shouldn't be giant, and the pottery mold isn't straightforward to burst. The standard of the finished product is relatively high. After the copper liquid is poured, take away the pottery molds and molds in accordance with the blocks they have been made. In the event that they cannot be eliminated, they can be broken with a hammer. The bronze will come out, and after grinding, it is the finished product.[25]

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Lost-wax casting[edit]In accordance with some students, lost-wax casting was used in China already through the Spring and Autumn interval (770 - 476 BCE), although this is usually disputed.[26]

The lost-wax technique is used in most parts of the world. As the identify suggests, the lost-wax method is to use wax as a mold, and heat it to melt the wax mold and lose it, thereby casting bronze ware, making the mannequin (the outer layer of the wax mannequin is coated with mud), lost-wax (heating to make the wax circulate out), pouring copper liquid to fill the cavity left by the wax mannequin, etc. The event and unfold of the misplaced-wax method within the West has never stopped, but the primary bronze casting methodology in the Bronze Age in China is the part mold process. When the lost-wax technique was introduced into China is also a subject of tutorial discussion. But there's little doubt that the misplaced-wax method already existed in China through the Spring and Autumn Period. In 1978, the Bronze Zun-Pan unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng in Leigudun, Suixian County, Hubei Province, used a combined technique of section mold technique and misplaced-wax method.[27]

Iron[edit]

Introduction[edit]The early Iron Age in China started earlier than one thousand BCE, with the introduction of ironware, reminiscent of knives, swords, and arrowheads, from the west into Xinjiang, before it additional diffused to Qinghai and Gansu.[28] In 2008, two iron fragments were excavated on the Mogou site, in Gansu. They've been dated to the 14th century BCE, belonging to the period of Siwa tradition. One of the fragments was manufactured from bloomery iron quite than meteoritic iron.[29]

Cast iron[edit]Cast iron farm tools and weapons have been widespread in China by the 5th century BC, employing workforces of over 200 males in iron smelters from the 3rd century onward. The earliest known blast furnaces are attributed to the Han dynasty in the 1st century Ad.[30][31] These early furnaces had clay walls and used phosphorus-containing minerals as a flux.[32] Chinese blast furnaces ranged from round two to ten meters in height, relying on the region. The largest ones have been found in trendy Sichuan and Guangdong, whereas the 'dwarf" blast furnaces were found in Dabieshan. In development, they're each round the identical level of technological sophistication [33]

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There isn't any proof of the bloomery in China after the looks of the blast furnace and forged iron. In China, blast furnaces produced solid iron, which was then both transformed into completed implements in a cupola furnace, or became wrought iron in a fining hearth.[34] If iron ores are heated with carbon to 1420-1470 K, a molten liquid is formed, an alloy of about 96.5% iron and 3.5% carbon. This product is robust, might be forged into intricate shapes, but is too brittle to be worked, except the product is decarburized to take away a lot of the carbon. The overwhelming majority of Chinese iron manufacture, from the late Zhou dynasty onward, was of cast iron.[35] However forged swords began to be made in the Warring-States-interval: "Earliest iron and steel Jian also appear, made by the earliest and most primary forging and folding methods."[36] Iron would turn into, by round 300 BCE, the popular steel for tools and weapons in China.[37]

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The primary benefit of the early blast furnace was in massive scale manufacturing and making iron implements extra readily accessible to peasants.[38] Cast iron is extra brittle than wrought iron or steel, which required additional fining and then cementation or co-fusion to provide, but for menial activities equivalent to farming it sufficed. By utilizing the blast furnace, it was possible to produce bigger portions of instruments comparable to ploughshares more effectively than the bloomery. In areas where high quality was important, similar to warfare, wrought iron and steel had been most popular. Nearly all Han interval weapons are product of wrought iron or steel, with the exception of axe-heads, of which many are made of forged iron.[39]

The effectiveness of the Chinese human and horse powered blast furnaces was enhanced during this interval by the engineer Du Shi (c. Ad 31), who utilized the power of waterwheels to piston-bellows in forging cast iron.[40] Early water-driven reciprocators for operating blast furnaces have been constructed based on the construction of horse powered reciprocators that already existed. That's, the circular movement of the wheel, be it horse driven or water pushed, was transferred by the combination of a belt drive, a crank-and-connecting-rod, other connecting rods, and varied shafts, into the reciprocal motion necessary to function a push bellow.[41][42]

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Donald Wagner suggests that early blast furnace and cast iron manufacturing advanced from furnaces used to melt bronze. Certainly, though, iron was essential to military success by the point the State of Qin had unified China (221 BC). Usage of the blast and cupola furnace remained widespread through the Song and Tang dynasties.[43] By the eleventh century, the Song dynasty Chinese iron business made a change of assets from charcoal to coke in casting iron and steel, sparing thousands of acres of woodland from felling. This may increasingly have occurred as early because the 4th century Ad.[44][45]

Blast furnaces have been additionally later used to supply gunpowder weapons resembling forged iron bomb shells and cast iron cannons during the Song dynasty.[46]

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Middle Ages[edit]Shen Kuo's written work of 1088 contains, among other early descriptions of innovations, a way of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast similar to the trendy Bessemer process.[47][48][49][50][51][52][53]

Chinese metallurgy was broadly practiced in the course of the Middle Ages; in the course of the 11th century, the expansion of the iron industry prompted huge deforestation attributable to the use of charcoal in the smelting course of.[54][55] To treatment the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to produce coke from bituminous coal as a substitute for charcoal ( click ).[54][55] Although hydraulic-powered bellows for heating the blast furnace had been written about since Du Shi's (d. 38) invention of them in the first century CE, the primary recognized illustration of a bellows in operation is present in a e book written in 1313 by Wang Zhen (fl. 1290-1333).[56]

Gold and silver[edit]Gold-crafting technology developed in Northwest China in the course of the early Iron Age, following the arrival of latest technological abilities from the Central Asian steppes, even earlier than the institution of the Xiongnu (209 BCE-150 CE).[57] These technological and creative exchanges attest to the magnitude of communication networks between China and the Mediterranean, even before the establishment of the Silk Road.[57] The websites of Dongtalede (Ch: 东塔勒德, 9th-seventh century BCE) in Xinjiang, or Xigoupan (Ch:西沟畔, 4th-third century BCE) within the Ordos area of Inner Mongolia, are identified for numerous artifacts harking back to the Scytho-Siberian art of Central Asia.[57]

During the Qing dynasty the gold and silver smiths of Ningbo had been noted for the delicacy and tastefulness of their work.[58][59][60][61][62][63][64]

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Gold appliqués within the form of snow leopards present in Dongtalede, Northwest China

Silver horse harness ornament, Xigoupan M2 (4th-3rd c. BCE)

Gold belt buckle inscribed with Chinese characters present in Xigoupan M2 (4th-third century BCE)

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Gold plaque with standing eagle from Xigoupan M2 (4th-third c. BCE)

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Cultural significance[edit]Chinese mythology generally reflects a time when metallurgy had long been practiced. In accordance with the Romanian anthropologist, orientalist, and philosopher Mircea Eliade, the Iron Age produced a large number of rites, myths and symbols; the blacksmith was the principle agent of diffusion of mythology, rites and metallurgical mysteries.[65] The key knowledge of metallurgists and their powers made them founders of the human world and masters of the spirit world.[66] This metallurgical mannequin was reinterpreted once more by Taoist alchemists.

Some metalworkers illustrate the shut relationship between Chinese mystical and sovereign power and the mining and metallurgy industries. Although the title Huangdi is absent from Shang or Zhou inscriptions, it seems in the Spring and Autumn interval's Guoyu and Zuo zhuan. According to Mitarai (1984), Huangdi may have lived in early antiquity and led a regional ethnic group who worshiped him as a deity;[full citation needed] "The Yellow Emperor fought Chiyou at Mount Kunwu whose summit was covered with a big amount of crimson copper".[67]

Kui, a grasp of music and dance cited by Shun, was succeeded by Yu the good.

"The seventy-two brothers of Chiyou had copper heads and iron fronts; they ate iron and stones [...] Within the province of Ji where Chiyou is believed to have lived (Chiyou shen), once we dig the earth and we find skulls that appear to be manufactured from copper and iron, they are identified because the bones of Chiyou."[68] Chiyou was the leader of the indigenous Sanmiao (or Jiuli) tribes who defeated Xuanyuan, the future Yellow Emperor. Chiyou, a rival of the Yellow Emperor, belonged to a clan of blacksmiths. The advancement of weaponry is sometimes attributed to the Yellow Emperor and Chiyou, and Chiyou reportedly found the process of casting. Kunwu is related to a individuals, a royal blacksmith, a mountain which produces metals, and a sword.[69] Kui, a grasp of music and dance cited by Shun, was succeeded by Yu the nice. Yu the nice, reported founding father of the Xia dynasty (China's first), spent a few years engaged on flood control and is credited with casting the Nine Tripod Cauldrons. Helped by dragons descended from heaven, he died on Mount Xianglu in Zhejiang.[70] In these myths and legends, mines and forges are associated with management.[71]

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Citations[edit]

^ In 200 BCE. Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan. 2004. India's Legendary Wootz Steel. Bangalore: Tata Steel.[1] [2] [3]

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^ Linduff 1997:306-418 (Linduff, K. M. 1997. An Archaeological Overview: Section 1. Reconstructing Frontier Cultures from Archaeological Evidence, in E. C. Bunker, et al., Ancient Bronzes of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections, New York: The Arthur M. Sackler Foundation, 1997)

^ Mei 2000 (Mei, Jianjun 2000. Copper and Bronze Metallurgy in Late Prehistoric Xinjiang: Its cultural context and relationship with neighboring areas, BAR International Series 865, Oxford: Archaeopress.)

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^ Grigoriev, Stanislav A. (2022). "Internal and External Impulses for the development of Ancient Chinese Metallurgy". Geoarchaeology and Archaeological Mineralogy. Springer Proceedings in Earth and Environmental Sciences. Springer International Publishing: 8, Fig.2. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86040-0_1. ISBN 978-3-030-86039-4.

^ a b Cosmo, Nicola Di (2008). Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China (Cambridge History of Ancient China). Cambridge University Press. p. 901.

^ a b Katheryn M. Linduff, Jianjun Mei (2008), Metallurgy in Ancient Eastern Asia: How is it Studied? Where is the sphere Headed? (PDF) The British Museum

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^ The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective, Kwang-Chih Chang, Pingfang Xu, Liancheng Lu. Yale University Press (2005), p. Sixty six

^ Bai Yunxiang (2003), A Discussion on Early Metals and the Origins of Bronze Casting in China. (PDF) Chinese Archaeology, Vol. 3(1)

^ Anne P. Underhill, ed., A Companion to Chinese Archaeology John Wiley & Sons, 2013 ISBN 1118325729 p524

^ Gideon Shelach, Prehistoric Societies on the Northern Frontiers of China: Archaeological Perspectives on Identity Formation and Economic Change During the first Millennium BCE. Routledge, 2016 ISBN 1134944810 p. 26

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^ Rawson, Jessica (April 2017). "China and the steppe: reception and resistance". Antiquity. 91 (356): 375-388. doi:10.15184/aqy.2016.276. The event of a number of key technologies in China -bronze and iron metallurgy and horse-drawn chariots- arose out of the relations of central China, of the Erlitou period (c. 1700-1500 BC), the Shang (c.1500-1046 BC) and the Zhou (1046-771 BC) dynasties, with their neighbours within the steppe. Intermediaries in these exchanges had been disparate teams in a broad border area of relatively high land around the guts of China, the Central Plains. The societies of central China had been already so advanced that, when these overseas innovations were adopted, they were reworked inside extremely organised social and cultural programs.

^ Bai (2003), p. 157.

^ Liu & Chen (2012), p. 234.

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^ Liu (2005), p. 224.

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^ JIANJUN, MEI (2003). "Cultural Interaction between China and Central Asia through the Bronze Age" (PDF). Proceedings of the British Academy. 121: 1-39. the argument for doable Afanasievo-Xinjiang contact based mostly on the finds at the Gumugou cemetery in the north-jap rim of the Tarim basin would appear reasonable and must be kept open for the long run archaeological finds. In other words, the possibility for the dispersal of early copperbased metallurgy from the Eurasian steppe into Xinjiang and further east to Gansu cannot be excluded at present and must be thought-about when further archaeological proof becomes accessible.

^ Lin, Meicun (2016). "Seima-Turbino Culture and the Proto-Silk Road". Chinese Cultural Relics. Three (1-002): 241. ISSN 2330-5169. The discovery of the Seima-Turbino culture in China is of great importance, as it demonstrates with material proof that Chinese metallurgy derives from the cultures of the Eurasian Steppe.

^ "The Golden Age of Chinese Archeology". National Gallery of Art. Retrieved 2009-02-16.

^ Cotterell, Maurice. (2004). The Terracotta Warriors: The key Codes of the Emperor's Army. Rochester: Bear and Company. ISBN 1-59143-033-X. Page 102.

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^ J. C. McVeigh (1984). Energy all over the world: an introduction to vitality studies, international resources, needs, utilization. Pergamon Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-08-031650-6. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

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^ Zhewen Luo (1993). China's imperial tombs and mausoleums. Foreign Languages Press. p. 44. ISBN 7-119-01619-9. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

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^ Jacques Guertin; James Alan Jacobs; Cynthia P. Avakian (2005). Chromium (VI) Handbook. CRC Press. pp. 7-11. ISBN 978-1-56670-608-7.

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^ Greg Woolf (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to perception, mythology, and artwork. Barnes & Noble. p. 226. ISBN 978-1-4351-0121-0.

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^ Zhu, Fenghan (2009). A Comprehensive Survey of China Bronzes. Shanghai Guji chubanshe. p. 15.

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^ 赵乾民;王富晓;苏荣誉 (2007). "商晚期青铜工艺制作流程". 中华遗产. 7.cite journal: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listing (hyperlink)

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^ Mei, J.; Wang, P.; Chen, K.; Wang, L.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y. (2015). "Archaeometallurgical research in China: Some recent developments and challenging issues". Journal of Archaeological Science. 56: 221-232. Bibcode:2015JArSc..56..221M. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.026.

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^ Peng, Peng (2020). Metalworking in Bronze Age China: The Lost-Wax Process. Cambria Press. p. 41.

^ Han, Jianye (2012). ""The Painted Pottery Road" and Early Sino-Western Cultural Exchanges". Anabasis: 37. Together with additional westward growth of the painted tradition at the moment, there was a larger variety of bronze instruments, weapons, horse gear and decorations, and even a small quantity of ironware, equivalent to knives, swords, and arrowheads that have been introduced into Xinjiang from the west, which then penetrated the western area of China including Qinghai and Gansu. Consequently, the early Iron Age in western China started previous to one thousand BC.

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^ Chen, Jianli, Mao, Ruilin, Wang, Hui, Chen, Honghai, Xie, Yan, Qian, Yaopeng, 2012. The iron objects unearthed from tombs of the Siwa culture in Mogou, Gansu, and the origin of iron-making know-how in China. Wenwu (Cult. Relics) 8,45-fifty three (in Chinese)

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^ Ebrey, p. 30.

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^ The earliest use of iron in China

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^ Early iron in China, Korea, and Japan Archived 5 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Donald B. Wagner, March 1993

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^ Wagner 2008, p. 6.

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^ Wagner 2008, p. 230.

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^ In 200 BCE. Srinivasan, Sharda, and Srinivasa Ranganathan. 2004. India's Legendary Wootz Steel. Bangalore: Tata Steel.[4] [5] [6]

^ http://sinosword.com/Chinese-sword-classify.html ; 2017-08-12

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^ Wagner, Donald B."Iron and Steel in Ancient China" (Brill, 1993) pp. 408

^ Wagner 2008, p. 169.

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^ Wagner 2008, p. 1.

^ Needham, Joseph (1986), Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering, Taipei: Cambridge University Press, p. 370, ISBN 0-521-05803-1

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^ Hong-Sen Yan, Marco Ceccarelli (2009). International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 235-249. ISBN 978-1-4020-9484-2.

^ Needham 1986, pp. 118-119.

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^ The approaching of the Ages of Steel. Brill Archive. 1961. p. 54. GGKEY:DN6SZTCNQ3G.

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^ Donald B. Wagner, 'Chinese blast furnaces from the 10th to the 14th century' Historical Metallurgy 37(1) (2003), 25-37; originally published in West Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine 18 (2001), 41-74.

^ Ebrey, p. 158.

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^ Liang 2006.

^ Sal Restivo, Mathematics in Society and History: Sociological Inquiries (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992, ISBN 1-4020-0039-1), pp 32.

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^ Nathan Sivin, Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. (Brookfield, Vermont: Variorum, Ashgate Publishing, 1995), Chapter III, pp. 21, 27, & 34.

^ Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics (Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., 1986), pp. 98 & 252.

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^ Hsu, Mei-ling. "Chinese Marine Cartography: Sea Charts of Pre-Modern China," Imago Mundi (Volume 40, 1988): 96-112.

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^ Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-49781-7), pp. 335.

^ Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd, 1986), pp 201.

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^ Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology, and the Structure of Enterprise in the development of the Eleventh-Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry". The Journal of Economic History. 26: 29-58. doi:10.1017/S0022050700061842. S2CID 154556274.

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^ a b Wagner, Donald B. "The Administration of the Iron Industry in Eleventh-Century China," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (Volume forty four 2001): 175-197.

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^ a b Patricia B. Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James B. Palais, East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006, ISBN 0-618-13384-4), pp. 158.

^ Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986), pp. 376.

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^ a b c d Liu, Yan; Li, Rui; Yang, Junchang; Liu, Ruiliang; Zhao, Guoxing; Tan, Panpan (26 April 2021). "China and the steppe: technological study of precious metalwork from Xigoupan Tomb 2 (4th-third c.BCE) in the Ordos region, Inner Mongolia". Heritage Science. 9 (1): 46. doi:10.1186/s40494-021-00520-5. ISSN 2050-7445.

^ appleton's new practical cyclopedia. NEW YORK. 1910. p. 432.cite guide: CS1 maint: location missing writer (link)(Original from Harvard University)

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^ Marcus Benjamin; Arthur Elmore Bostwick; Gerald Van Casteel; George Jotham Hagar, eds. (1910). Appleton's new practical cyclopedia: a new work of reference primarily based upon the most effective authorities, and systematically arranged to be used in house and faculty. Vol. 4 of Appleton's New Practical Cyclopedia. NEW YORK: D. Appleton and firm. p. 432. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from the University of Michigan)

^ The universal cyclopaedia. Vol. Eight of The Universal Cyclopaedia: A brand new Ed. Prepared by a large Corps of Editors, Assisted by Eminent European and American Specialists, Under the Direction of Charles Kendall Adams ... Editor-in-chief, Illustrated with Maps, Plans, Colored Plates, and Engravings. NEW YORK: D. Appleton. 1900. p. 489. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(LIBRARY OF THE LELAND STANFORD JR. University)

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^ Charles Kendall Adams; Rossiter Johnson (1901). Universal cyclopædia and atlas, Volume 8. NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Company. p. 489. Retrieved 18 July 2011. The gold and silver smiths of Ningpo are noted for the delicacy and tastefulness of their work, and Ningpo confectionery is celebrated throughout China. The specialty of the place, nevertheless, is its elegantly carved and inlaid furniture. Silk-tradition is extensively carried on in the encompassing country, and silk-weaving is an important industry. In 1893 498 piculs of silk piece-goods were exported. The development of manufacturing interests in Japan has given a groat impetus to cotton-tradition, and in 1893 the steam cotton-ginning institutions of Ningpo cleaned over 60,000 piculs of uncooked cotton.(Original from Columbia University)

^ A.J. Johnson Company (1895). Charles Kendall Adams (ed.). Johnson's universal cyclopedia: a new edition. Vol. 6 of Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia. NEW YORK: D. Appleton, A.J. Johnson. p. 201. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from the University of California)

^ Charles Kendall Adams (1895). Johnson's universal cyclopaedia, Volume 6. NEW YORK: A.J. Johnson Co. p. 201. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from Princeton University)

^ Charles Kendall Adams; Rossiter Johnson (1902). activated charcoal cvs and atlas, Volume 8. NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Company. p. 489. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from the brand new York Public Library)

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^ Eliade, Mircea (1956). The Forge and the Crucible. France: Flammarion. p. 19.

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^ Jacques, Gernet (1964). La Chine ancienne. France: Presses universitaires de France. pp. 40-45.

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^ Ford, Robert (2000). The Classic of Mountains and Seas. Association for Asian Studies. pp. Chapter 5.

^ Ren, Fang. Tales of Strange Matters. pp. 1.21-1.24.

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^ Granet, Marcel (1959). Danses et légendes de la Chine ancienne. Paris, France: Presses Universitaires de France. pp. 492-493.

^ Wang, Robin R. (2003). The Classic of Mountains and Seas. pp. Chapter 1.

^ Granet, Marcel (1959). Danses et légendes de la Chine ancienne. Paris, France: Presses Universitaires de France. p. 592.

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Sources[edit]

Bai, Yunxiang (2003), "A Discussion on Early Metals and the Origins of Bronze Casting in China" (PDF), Chinese Archaeology, three (1): 157-165, doi:10.1515/CHAR.2003.3.1.157, S2CID 164920328.

Birch, Alan (2005), The Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry, 1784-1879, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-38248-three

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2005), East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-618-13384-four

Gimpel, Jean (1976), The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, ISBN 0-03-014636-four

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Hung, Ling-yu (2011), Pottery Production, Mortuary Practice, and Social Complexity within the Majiayao Culture, NW China (ca. 5300-4000 BP) (PhD), Washington University in St. Louis, doi:10.7936/K72V2D3J

Hyde, Charles K. (1977), Technological Change and the British iron trade, 1700-1870, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-05246-8

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Liang, Jieming (2006), Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery & Siege Weapons of Antiquity, Singapore, Republic of Singapore: Leong Kit Meng, ISBN 981-05-5380-3

Liu, Li (2005), The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-81184-2.

Liu, Li; Chen, Xingcan (2012), The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-64310-8.

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Valenstein, Suzanne G. (1989), A Handbook of Chinese Ceramics (revised ed.), New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 978-0-87099-514-9.

Wagner, Donald B. (2008), Science and Civilization in China Volume 5-11: Ferrous Metallurgy, Cambridge University Press[ISBN missing]

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Public domain

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This text incorporates textual content from Universal cyclopædia and atlas, Volume 8, by Charles Kendall Adams, Rossiter Johnson, a publication from 1901, now in the general public domain in the United States.

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This article incorporates textual content from Johnson's universal cyclopedia: a new version, by A.J. Johnson Company, a publication from 1895, now in the public domain within the United States.

This text incorporates text from Johnson's universal cyclopaedia, Volume 6, by Charles Kendall Adams, a publication from 1895, now in the public area within the United States.

This text incorporates textual content from Universal cyclopaedia and atlas, Volume 8, by Charles Kendall Adams, Rossiter Johnson, a publication from 1902, now in the public domain in the United States.

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