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Metallurgy in China has a protracted historical past, with the earliest steel objects in China dating back to round 3,000 BCE. The vast majority of early metal gadgets found in China come from the North-Western Region (primarily Gansu and Qinghai, 青海). China was the earliest civilization to use the blast furnace and produce forged iron.[1]

Copper[edit]Archaeological evidence signifies that the earliest steel objects in China had been made in the late fourth millennium BCE. Copper was generally the earliest steel to be used by humanity, and was used in China since a minimum of 3000 BCE.[2][3]

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Early steel-utilizing communities have been discovered at the Qijia and Siba sites in Gansu. The metallic knives and axes recovered in Qijia apparently level to some interactions with Siberian and Central Asian cultures, particularly with the Seima-Turbino advanced,[5] or the Afanasievo tradition.[6] Archeological evidence points to plausible early contact between the Qijia tradition and Central Asia.[5] Similar websites have been present in Xinjiang within the west and Shandong, Liaoning and Inner Mongolia within the east and north. The Central Plain websites associated with the Erlitou culture additionally comprise early metalworks.[7]

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Copper manufacturing, more advanced than jade working, steadily appeared within the Yangshao period (5000-3000 BCE). Jiangzhai is the only place where copper artifacts have been discovered in the Banpo tradition. Archaeologists have discovered stays of copper metallurgy in varied cultures from the late fourth to the early third millennia BCE. These embody the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the Hongshan tradition (4700-2900) and copper slag on the Yuanwozhen site. This signifies that inhabitants of the Yellow River valley had already learned easy methods to make copper artifacts by the later Yangshao period.[8]

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The Qijia culture (c. 2500-1900) of Qinghai, Gansu, and western Shaanxi produced copper and bronze utilitarian items and gold, copper, and bronze ornaments. The earliest metalworks on this area are discovered at a Majiayao site at Linjia, Dongxiang, Gansu.[7] "Their dates range from 2900 to 1600 BCE. These steel objects represent the Majiayao 馬家窯 sort of the Majiayao tradition (c. 3100-2700 BCE), Zongri 宗日 Culture (c. 3600-2050 BCE), Machang 馬廠 Type (c. 2300-2000 BCE), Qijia 齊家 Culture (c. 2050-1915 BCE), and Siba 四壩 Culture (c. 2000-1600 BCE)."[9]

At Dengjiawan, within the Shijiahe site advanced in Hubei, some pieces of copper had been found; they are the earliest copper objects discovered in southern China.[10] The Linjia site (林家遺址, Línjiā yízhǐ) has the earliest proof for bronze in China, relationship to c. 3000 BCE.[11]

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Bronze[edit]

Main article: Bronze Age ChinaBronze expertise was imported to China from the steppes.[12] The oldest bronze object present in China was a knife discovered at a Majiayao culture site in Dongxiang, Gansu, and dated to 2900-2740 BC.[13] Further copper and bronze objects have been found at Machang-period websites in Gansu.[14] Metallurgy spread to the center and decrease Yellow River area in the late third millennium BC.[15] Contacts between the Afanasievo tradition and the Majiayao culture and the Qijia culture have been thought-about for the transmission of bronze know-how.[16] From round 2000 BCE, cast bronze objects such because the socketed spear with single aspect hook have been imported and tailored from the Seima-Turbino culture.[17]

The Erlitou culture (c. 1900 - 1500 BCE), Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 - 1046 BCE) and Sanxingdui tradition (c. 1250 - 1046 BCE) of early China used bronze vessels for rituals (see Chinese ritual bronzes) in addition to farming implements and weapons.[18] By 1500 BCE, glorious bronzes have been being made in China in large quantities, partly as a show of status, and as many as 200 large pieces were buried with their owner to be used in the afterlife, as within the Tomb of Fu Hao, a Shang queen.

In the tomb of the first Qin Emperor and multiple Warring States interval tombs, extraordinarily sharp swords and different weapons have been discovered, coated with chromium oxide, which made the weapons rust resistant.[19][20][21] The layer of chromium oxide used on these swords was 10 to 15 micrometers and left them in pristine condition to at the present time. Chromium was first scientifically attested within the 18th century.[22]

The beginning of new breakthroughs in metallurgy occurred in direction of the Yangzi River's south in China's southeastern area within the Warring States Period equivalent to gilt-bronze swords.[23]

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Section-mold casting[edit]There are two forms of bronze smelting techniques in early China, specifically the part mold process and the lost-wax course of. The earliest bronze ware found in China is the bronze knife (F20: 18) unearthed at the Majiayao in Linjia, Dongxiang, Gansu, and dated to about 3000 BC.[24] This bronze knife uses the section mold process, which is spliced by two molds.

The section mold process is a commonly used bronze casting methodology in the Shang Dynasty, that's, the mud is chosen, and after choosing, filtration, showering, deposition and other procedures, the mud is cooled to a moderate hardness as a backup, and then the mud is made according to the shape of the vessel to be made. There are two sorts of molds, which is interior mold and outer mold. The interior mold is barely the shape of the bronze ware, with out decoration; the outer mannequin ought to consider the division of the bronze ware after casting in the future, that is, the block during the production of the clay model, and in addition engrave the inscriptions and inscriptions of the bronze ware decoration on the clay model. After the clay mold are carried out, put it in a cool place to dry within the shade, and then put it into the furnace for roasting. After the mold are heated, they become pottery molds unearthed during fashionable archaeological discoveries. After the pottery mold is fired, don't rush out of the furnace. After the copper furnace has liquefied the required copper, the pottery mold that nonetheless has residual temperature is taken out and poured. In this fashion, the temperature difference between the copper liquid and the pottery mold is just not massive, and the pottery mold isn't straightforward to burst. The quality of the completed product is relatively high. After the copper liquid is poured, remove the pottery molds and molds in line with the blocks they were made. In the event that they can't be removed, they are often broken with a hammer. The bronze will come out, and after grinding, it is the completed product.[25]

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Lost-wax casting[edit]According to some students, misplaced-wax casting was used in China already through the Spring and Autumn interval (770 - 476 BCE), though this is usually disputed.[26]

The misplaced-wax method is utilized in most parts of the world. Because the name suggests, the lost-wax method is to use wax as a mold, and heat it to melt the wax mold and lose it, thereby casting bronze ware, making the mannequin (the outer layer of the wax mannequin is coated with mud), lost-wax (heating to make the wax circulate out), pouring copper liquid to fill the cavity left by the wax mannequin, and so forth. The development and unfold of the lost-wax technique in the West has by no means stopped, but the primary bronze casting method within the Bronze Age in China is the part mold process. When the lost-wax method was launched into China is also a topic of educational discussion. But there is little question that the lost-wax methodology already existed in China in the course of the Spring and Autumn Period. In 1978, the Bronze Zun-Pan unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng in Leigudun, Suixian County, Hubei Province, used a combined means of part mold method and misplaced-wax technique.[27]

Iron[edit]

Introduction[edit]The early Iron Age in China started earlier than a thousand BCE, with the introduction of ironware, such as knives, swords, and arrowheads, from the west into Xinjiang, before it further diffused to Qinghai and Gansu.[28] In 2008, two iron fragments were excavated at the Mogou site, in Gansu. They have been dated to the 14th century BCE, belonging to the period of Siwa culture. One of the fragments was manufactured from bloomery iron quite than meteoritic iron.[29]

Cast iron[edit]Cast iron farm tools and weapons have been widespread in China by the fifth century BC, using workforces of over 200 men in iron smelters from the 3rd century onward. The earliest identified blast furnaces are attributed to the Han dynasty in the first century Ad.[30][31] These early furnaces had clay walls and used phosphorus-containing minerals as a flux.[32] Chinese blast furnaces ranged from around two to 10 meters in height, relying on the region. The largest ones had been found in trendy Sichuan and Guangdong, whereas the 'dwarf" blast furnaces have been found in Dabieshan. In development, they are each around the same degree of technological sophistication [33]

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There is no such thing as a evidence of the bloomery in China after the looks of the blast furnace and cast iron. In China, blast furnaces produced forged iron, which was then both transformed into completed implements in a cupola furnace, or turned into wrought iron in a fining hearth.[34] If iron ores are heated with carbon to 1420-1470 K, a molten liquid is formed, an alloy of about 96.5% iron and 3.5% carbon. This product is strong, may be cast into intricate shapes, however is just too brittle to be worked, until the product is decarburized to remove many of the carbon. The overwhelming majority of Chinese iron manufacture, from the late Zhou dynasty onward, was of solid iron.[35] However cast swords started to be made in the Warring-States-interval: "Earliest iron and steel Jian also seem, made by the earliest and most fundamental forging and folding techniques."[36] Iron would develop into, by around 300 BCE, the preferred metal for instruments and weapons in China.[37]

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The first benefit of the early blast furnace was in massive scale production and making iron implements extra readily obtainable to peasants.[38] Cast iron is extra brittle than wrought iron or steel, which required further fining and then cementation or co-fusion to produce, however for menial activities corresponding to farming it sufficed. By using the blast furnace, it was possible to produce larger portions of instruments equivalent to ploughshares more efficiently than the bloomery. In areas where high quality was vital, similar to warfare, wrought iron and steel were most well-liked. Nearly all Han period weapons are product of wrought iron or steel, with the exception of axe-heads, of which many are product of forged iron.[39]

The effectiveness of the Chinese human and horse powered blast furnaces was enhanced during this period by the engineer Du Shi (c. Ad 31), who utilized the power of waterwheels to piston-bellows in forging cast iron.[40] Early water-driven reciprocators for working blast furnaces were constructed based on the structure of horse powered reciprocators that already existed. That is, the circular motion of the wheel, be it horse pushed or water pushed, was transferred by the mixture of a belt drive, a crank-and-connecting-rod, different connecting rods, and various shafts, into the reciprocal motion essential to function a push bellow.[41][42]

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Donald Wagner suggests that early blast furnace and forged iron manufacturing advanced from furnaces used to melt bronze. Certainly, though, iron was essential to military success by the time the State of Qin had unified China (221 BC). Usage of the blast and cupola furnace remained widespread during the Song and Tang dynasties.[43] By the 11th century, the Song dynasty Chinese iron trade made a switch of resources from charcoal to coke in casting iron and steel, sparing thousands of acres of woodland from felling. This will likely have happened as early because the 4th century Ad.[44][45]

Blast furnaces have been additionally later used to supply gunpowder weapons comparable to solid iron bomb shells and cast iron cannons throughout the Song dynasty.[46]

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Middle Ages[edit]Shen Kuo's written work of 1088 incorporates, amongst other early descriptions of inventions, a way of repeated forging of forged iron below a cold blast just like the fashionable Bessemer course of.[47][48][49][50][51][52][53]

Chinese metallurgy was extensively practiced throughout the Middle Ages; in the course of the eleventh century, the growth of the iron business precipitated huge deforestation as a consequence of using charcoal within the smelting course of.[54][55] To remedy the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to provide coke from bituminous coal as a substitute for charcoal ( click this link here now ).[54][55] Although hydraulic-powered bellows for heating the blast furnace had been written about since Du Shi's (d. 38) invention of them in the 1st century CE, the primary identified illustration of a bellows in operation is present in a ebook written in 1313 by Wang Zhen (fl. 1290-1333).[56]

Gold and silver[edit]Gold-crafting know-how developed in Northwest China through the early Iron Age, following the arrival of recent technological abilities from the Central Asian steppes, even before the institution of the Xiongnu (209 BCE-one hundred fifty CE).[57] These technological and creative exchanges attest to the magnitude of communication networks between China and the Mediterranean, even earlier than the establishment of the Silk Road.[57] The websites of Dongtalede (Ch: 东塔勒德, Ninth-seventh century BCE) in Xinjiang, or Xigoupan (Ch:西沟畔, 4th-third century BCE) in the Ordos region of Inner Mongolia, are identified for quite a few artifacts reminiscent of the Scytho-Siberian artwork of Central Asia.[57]

In the course of the Qing dynasty the gold and silver smiths of Ningbo have been famous for the delicacy and tastefulness of their work.[58][59][60][61][62][63][64]

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Gold appliqués in the form of snow leopards present in Dongtalede, Northwest China

Silver horse harness ornament, Xigoupan M2 (4th-third c. BCE)

Gold belt buckle inscribed with Chinese characters present in Xigoupan M2 (4th-third century BCE)

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Gold plaque with standing eagle from Xigoupan M2 (4th-3rd c. BCE)

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Cultural significance[edit]Chinese mythology generally reflects a time when metallurgy had lengthy been practiced. In response to the Romanian anthropologist, orientalist, and philosopher Mircea Eliade, the Iron Age produced a large number of rites, myths and symbols; the blacksmith was the main agent of diffusion of mythology, rites and metallurgical mysteries.[65] The secret knowledge of metallurgists and their powers made them founders of the human world and masters of the spirit world.[66] This metallurgical model was reinterpreted again by Taoist alchemists.

Some metalworkers illustrate the close relationship between Chinese mystical and sovereign energy and the mining and metallurgy industries. Although the name Huangdi is absent from Shang or Zhou inscriptions, it appears within the Spring and Autumn interval's Guoyu and Zuo zhuan. In accordance with Mitarai (1984), Huangdi may have lived in early antiquity and led a regional ethnic group who worshiped him as a deity;[full quotation wanted] "The Yellow Emperor fought Chiyou at Mount Kunwu whose summit was covered with a big quantity of pink copper".[67]

Kui, a master of music and dance cited by Shun, was succeeded by Yu the good.

"The seventy-two brothers of Chiyou had copper heads and iron fronts; they ate iron and stones [...] Within the province of Ji the place Chiyou is believed to have lived (Chiyou shen), after we dig the earth and we find skulls that seem to be made from copper and iron, they are identified as the bones of Chiyou."[68] Chiyou was the chief of the indigenous Sanmiao (or Jiuli) tribes who defeated Xuanyuan, the longer term Yellow Emperor. Chiyou, a rival of the Yellow Emperor, belonged to a clan of blacksmiths. The advancement of weaponry is generally attributed to the Yellow Emperor and Chiyou, and Chiyou reportedly found the strategy of casting. Kunwu is associated with a folks, a royal blacksmith, a mountain which produces metals, and a sword.[69] Kui, a master of music and dance cited by Shun, was succeeded by Yu the nice. Yu the good, reported founder of the Xia dynasty (China's first), spent a few years engaged on flood control and is credited with casting the Nine Tripod Cauldrons. Helped by dragons descended from heaven, he died on Mount Xianglu in Zhejiang.[70] In these myths and legends, mines and forges are associated with management.[71]

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Citations[edit]

^ In 200 BCE. Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan. 2004. India's Legendary Wootz Steel. Bangalore: Tata Steel.[1] [2] [3]

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^ Linduff 1997:306-418 (Linduff, K. M. 1997. An Archaeological Overview: Section 1. Reconstructing Frontier Cultures from Archaeological Evidence, in E. C. Bunker, et al., Ancient Bronzes of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections, New York: The Arthur M. Sackler Foundation, 1997)

^ Mei 2000 (Mei, Jianjun 2000. Copper and Bronze Metallurgy in Late Prehistoric Xinjiang: Its cultural context and relationship with neighboring areas, BAR International Series 865, Oxford: Archaeopress.)

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^ Grigoriev, Stanislav A. (2022). " charcoal small bbq grill and External Impulses for the development of Ancient Chinese Metallurgy". Geoarchaeology and Archaeological Mineralogy. Springer Proceedings in Earth and Environmental Sciences. Springer International Publishing: 8, Fig.2. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86040-0_1. ISBN 978-3-030-86039-4.

^ a b Cosmo, Nicola Di (2008). Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China (Cambridge History of Ancient China). Cambridge University Press. p. 901.

^ a b Katheryn M. Linduff, Jianjun Mei (2008), Metallurgy in Ancient Eastern Asia: How is it Studied? Where is the sector Headed? (PDF) The British Museum

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^ The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective, Kwang-Chih Chang, Pingfang Xu, Liancheng Lu. Yale University Press (2005), p. 66

^ Bai Yunxiang (2003), A Discussion on Early Metals and the Origins of Bronze Casting in China. (PDF) Chinese Archaeology, Vol. 3(1)

^ Anne P. Underhill, ed., A Companion to Chinese Archaeology John Wiley & Sons, 2013 ISBN 1118325729 p524

^ Gideon Shelach, Prehistoric Societies on the Northern Frontiers of China: Archaeological Perspectives on Identity Formation and Economic Change During the primary Millennium BCE. Routledge, 2016 ISBN 1134944810 p. 26

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^ Rawson, Jessica (April 2017). "China and the steppe: reception and resistance". Antiquity. 91 (356): 375-388. doi:10.15184/aqy.2016.276. The development of several key applied sciences in China -bronze and iron metallurgy and horse-drawn chariots- arose out of the relations of central China, of the Erlitou interval (c. 1700-1500 BC), the Shang (c.1500-1046 BC) and the Zhou (1046-771 BC) dynasties, with their neighbours within the steppe. Intermediaries in these exchanges have been disparate teams in a broad border area of comparatively excessive land around the heart of China, the Central Plains. The societies of central China have been already so advanced that, when these international innovations have been adopted, they have been transformed within extremely organised social and cultural systems.

^ Bai (2003), p. 157.

^ Liu & Chen (2012), p. 234.

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^ Liu (2005), p. 224.

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^ JIANJUN, MEI (2003). "Cultural Interaction between China and Central Asia throughout the Bronze Age" (PDF). Proceedings of the British Academy. 121: 1-39. the argument for doable Afanasievo-Xinjiang contact based mostly on the finds at the Gumugou cemetery in the north-jap rim of the Tarim basin would appear affordable and needs to be kept open for the long run archaeological finds. In different phrases, the chance for the dispersal of early copperbased metallurgy from the Eurasian steppe into Xinjiang and further east to Gansu can't be excluded at present and should be thought-about when further archaeological proof becomes accessible.

^ Lin, Meicun (2016). "Seima-Turbino Culture and the Proto-Silk Road". Chinese Cultural Relics. 3 (1-002): 241. ISSN 2330-5169. The invention of the Seima-Turbino culture in China is of great importance, because it demonstrates with materials proof that Chinese metallurgy derives from the cultures of the Eurasian Steppe.

^ "The Golden Age of Chinese Archeology". National Gallery of Art. Retrieved 2009-02-16.

^ Cotterell, Maurice. (2004). The Terracotta Warriors: The key Codes of the Emperor's Army. Rochester: Bear and Company. ISBN 1-59143-033-X. Page 102.

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^ Zhewen Luo (1993). China's imperial tombs and mausoleums. Foreign Languages Press. p. 44. ISBN 7-119-01619-9. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

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^ Jacques Guertin; James Alan Jacobs; Cynthia P. Avakian (2005). Chromium (VI) Handbook. CRC Press. pp. 7-11. ISBN 978-1-56670-608-7.

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^ Greg Woolf (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art. Barnes & Noble. p. 226. ISBN 978-1-4351-0121-0.

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^ Zhu, Fenghan (2009). A Comprehensive Survey of China Bronzes. Shanghai Guji chubanshe. p. 15.

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^ 赵乾民;王富晓;苏荣誉 (2007). "商晚期青铜工艺制作流程". 中华遗产. 7.cite journal: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors record (link)

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^ Mei, J.; Wang, P.; Chen, K.; Wang, L.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y. (2015). "Archaeometallurgical studies in China: Some recent developments and difficult issues". Journal of Archaeological Science. 56: 221-232. Bibcode:2015JArSc..56..221M. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.026.

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^ Peng, Peng (2020). Metalworking in Bronze Age China: The Lost-Wax Process. Cambria Press. p. 41.

^ Han, Jianye (2012). ""The Painted Pottery Road" and Early Sino-Western Cultural Exchanges". Anabasis: 37. Along with additional westward growth of the painted culture right now, there was a larger variety of bronze tools, weapons, horse gear and decorations, and even a small amount of ironware, reminiscent of knives, swords, and arrowheads that had been launched into Xinjiang from the west, which then penetrated the western area of China together with Qinghai and Gansu. Consequently, the early Iron Age in western China started prior to a thousand BC.

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^ Chen, Jianli, Mao, Ruilin, Wang, Hui, Chen, Honghai, Xie, Yan, Qian, Yaopeng, 2012. The iron objects unearthed from tombs of the Siwa tradition in Mogou, Gansu, and the origin of iron-making technology in China. Wenwu (Cult. Relics) 8,45-53 (in Chinese)

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^ Ebrey, p. 30.

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^ Wagner 2008, p. 6.

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^ Wagner 2008, p. 230.

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^ In 200 BCE. Srinivasan, Sharda, and Srinivasa Ranganathan. 2004. India's Legendary Wootz Steel. Bangalore: Tata Steel.[4] [5] [6]

^ http://sinosword.com/Chinese-sword-classify.html ; 2017-08-12

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^ Wagner, Donald B."Iron and Steel in Ancient China" (Brill, 1993) pp. 408

^ Wagner 2008, p. 169.

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^ Wagner 2008, p. 1.

^ Needham, Joseph (1986), Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering, Taipei: Cambridge University Press, p. 370, ISBN 0-521-05803-1

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^ Hong-Sen Yan, Marco Ceccarelli (2009). International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 235-249. ISBN 978-1-4020-9484-2.

^ Needham 1986, pp. 118-119.

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^ Donald B. Wagner, 'Chinese blast furnaces from the 10th to the 14th century' Historical Metallurgy 37(1) (2003), 25-37; initially published in West Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine 18 (2001), 41-74.

^ Ebrey, p. 158.

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^ Liang 2006.

^ Sal Restivo, Mathematics in Society and History: Sociological Inquiries (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992, ISBN 1-4020-0039-1), pp 32.

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^ Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics (Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., 1986), pp. 98 & 252.

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^ Hsu, Mei-ling. "Chinese Marine Cartography: Sea Charts of Pre-Modern China," Imago Mundi (Volume 40, 1988): 96-112.

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^ Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-49781-7), pp. 335.

^ Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd, 1986), pp 201.

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^ Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology, and the Structure of Enterprise in the development of the Eleventh-Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry". The Journal of Economic History. 26: 29-58. doi:10.1017/S0022050700061842. S2CID 154556274.

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^ a b Wagner, Donald B. "The Administration of the Iron Industry in Eleventh-Century China," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (Volume forty four 2001): 175-197.

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^ a b Patricia B. Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James B. Palais, East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006, ISBN 0-618-13384-4), pp. 158.

^ Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986), pp. 376.

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^ a b c d Liu, Yan; Li, Rui; Yang, Junchang; Liu, Ruiliang; Zhao, Guoxing; Tan, Panpan (26 April 2021). "China and the steppe: technological study of treasured metalwork from Xigoupan Tomb 2 (4th-3rd c.BCE) in the Ordos region, Inner Mongolia". Heritage Science. 9 (1): 46. doi:10.1186/s40494-021-00520-5. ISSN 2050-7445.

^ appleton's new practical cyclopedia. NEW YORK. 1910. p. 432.cite ebook: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)(Original from Harvard University)

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^ Marcus Benjamin; Arthur Elmore Bostwick; Gerald Van Casteel; George Jotham Hagar, eds. (1910). Appleton's new sensible cyclopedia: a brand new work of reference primarily based upon the best authorities, and systematically arranged for use in house and school. Vol. 4 of Appleton's New Practical Cyclopedia. NEW YORK: D. Appleton and company. p. 432. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from the University of Michigan)

^ The universal cyclopaedia. Vol. Eight of The Universal Cyclopaedia: A new Ed. Prepared by a large Corps of Editors, Assisted by Eminent European and American Specialists, Under the Direction of Charles Kendall Adams ... Editor-in-chief, Illustrated with Maps, Plans, Colored Plates, and Engravings. NEW YORK: D. Appleton. 1900. p. 489. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(LIBRARY OF THE LELAND STANFORD JR. University)

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^ Charles Kendall Adams; Rossiter Johnson (1901). Universal cyclopædia and atlas, Volume 8. NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Company. p. 489. Retrieved 18 July 2011. The gold and silver smiths of Ningpo are famous for the delicacy and tastefulness of their work, and Ningpo confectionery is celebrated all over China. The specialty of the place, nevertheless, is its elegantly carved and inlaid furniture. Silk-tradition is extensively carried on in the encircling country, and silk-weaving is a crucial industry. In 1893 498 piculs of silk piece-goods have been exported. The event of manufacturing interests in Japan has given a groat impetus to cotton-culture, and in 1893 the steam cotton-ginning institutions of Ningpo cleaned over 60,000 piculs of uncooked cotton.(Original from Columbia University)

^ A.J. Johnson Company (1895). Charles Kendall Adams (ed.). Johnson's common cyclopedia: a new version. Vol. 6 of Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia. NEW YORK: D. Appleton, A.J. Johnson. p. 201. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from the University of California)

^ Charles Kendall Adams (1895). Johnson's common cyclopaedia, Volume 6. NEW YORK: A.J. Johnson Co. p. 201. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from Princeton University)

^ Charles Kendall Adams; Rossiter Johnson (1902). Universal cyclopaedia and atlas, Volume 8. NEW YORK: D. charcoal portraits and Company. p. 489. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from the new York Public Library)

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^ Ren, Fang. Tales of Strange Matters. pp. 1.21-1.24.

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^ Wang, Robin R. (2003). The Classic of Mountains and Seas. pp. Chapter 1.

^ Granet, Marcel (1959). Danses et légendes de la Chine ancienne. Paris, France: Presses Universitaires de France. p. 592.

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Sources[edit]

Bai, Yunxiang (2003), "A Discussion on Early Metals and the Origins of Bronze Casting in China" (PDF), Chinese Archaeology, 3 (1): 157-165, doi:10.1515/CHAR.2003.3.1.157, S2CID 164920328.

Birch, Alan (2005), The Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry, 1784-1879, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-38248-3

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2005), East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-618-13384-four

Gimpel, Jean (1976), The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, ISBN 0-03-014636-four

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Hung, Ling-yu (2011), Pottery Production, Mortuary Practice, and Social Complexity within the Majiayao Culture, NW China (ca. 5300-4000 BP) (PhD), Washington University in St. Louis, doi:10.7936/K72V2D3J

Hyde, Charles K. (1977), Technological Change and the British iron industry, 1700-1870, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-05246-8

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Liang, Jieming (2006), Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery & Siege Weapons of Antiquity, Singapore, Republic of Singapore: Leong Kit Meng, ISBN 981-05-5380-three

Liu, Li (2005), The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-81184-2.

Liu, Li; Chen, Xingcan (2012), The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-64310-8.

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Valenstein, Suzanne G. (1989), A Handbook of Chinese Ceramics (revised ed.), New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 978-0-87099-514-9.

Wagner, Donald B. (2008), Science and Civilization in China Volume 5-11: Ferrous Metallurgy, Cambridge University Press[ISBN lacking]

Woods, Thomas (2005), How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publ., ISBN 0-89526-038-7

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This web page was last edited on 24 February 2024, at 10:15 (UTC).