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Copyright © 2020 Hao, Guo, Feng, Dong and Cui.Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are a group of diseases caused by chronic and progressive degeneration of neural tissue. The main pathological manifestations are neuronal degeneration and loss in the brain and/or spinal cord. Common NDDs include Alzheimer disease (AD), Parkinson disease (PD), Huntington disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The complicated pathological characteristics and different clinical manifestations of NDDs result in a lack of sensitive and efficient diagnostic methods. In addition, no sensitive biomarkers are available to monitor the course of NDDs, predict their prognosis, and monitor the therapeutic response. Despite extensive research in recent years, analysis of amyloid β (Aβ) and α-synuclein has failed to effectively improve NDD diagnosis. Although recent studies have indicated circulating miRNAs as promising diagnostic biomarkers of NDDs, the miRNA in the peripheral circulation is susceptible to interference by other components, making circulating miRNA results less consistent. Exosomes are small membrane vesicles with a diameter of approximately 30-100 nm that transport proteins, lipids, mRNA, and miRNA. Because recent studies have shown that exosomes have a double-membrane structure that can resist ribonuclease in the blood, giving exosomal miRNA high stability and making them resistant to degradation, they may become an ideal biomarker of circulating fluids. In this review, we discuss the applicability of circulating exosomal miRNAs as biomarkers, highlight the technical aspects of exosomal miRNA analysis, and review studies that have used circulating exosomal miRNAs as candidate diagnostic biomarkers of NDDs. Copyright © 2020 Wang and Zhang.Auditory perception is facilitated by prior knowledge about the statistics of the acoustic environment. Predictions about upcoming auditory stimuli are processed at various stages along the human auditory pathway, including the cortex and midbrain. Whether such auditory predictions are processed also at hierarchically lower stages-in the peripheral auditory system-is unclear. To address this question, we assessed outer hair cell (OHC) activity in response to isochronous tone sequences and varied the predictability and behavioral relevance of the individual tones (by manipulating tone-to-tone probabilities and the human participants' task, respectively). We found that predictability alters the amplitude of distortion-product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs, a measure of OHC activity) in a manner that depends on the behavioral relevance of the tones. Simultaneously recorded cortical responses showed a significant effect of both predictability and behavioral relevance of the tones, indicating that their experimental manipulations were effective in central auditory processing stages. Our results provide evidence for a top-down effect on the processing of auditory predictability in the human peripheral auditory system, in line with previous studies showing peripheral effects of auditory attention. Copyright © 2020 Riecke, Marianu and De Martino.Economic decision biases can reflect emotion and emotion dysfunction. Economic paradigms thus provide a solid framework for analysis of brain processes related to emotion and its disorders. Importantly for economic decisions, goal-conflict activates different negative motivational processes than pure loss; generating negative decision biases linked to anxiety and fear, respectively. Previously, right frontal goal-conflict specific EEG rhythmicity (GCSR) was shown to reflect anxiety processing. Here, we assessed GCSR in a forced-choice, economic decision-making task. Ninety participants were tested in three key conditions where gainloss ratios of left mouse clicks were set to 7525 (GAIN), 5050 (CONFLICT) and 2575 (LOSS). Right clicks produced no monetary consequences and skipped the current trial. The participants were not told the different conditions but could learn about them by associating the background stimulus color with the specific payoff. Goal-conflict was defined as the mathematical contrast of activity in CONFLICT minus the average of that in GAIN and LOSS. Replicating previous findings with somewhat different conditions, right frontal GCSR was detected. Importantly, greater right frontal GCSR significantly predicted a preference for economic safety in CONFLICT but not in GAIN or LOSS; but did not predict trait anxiety or neuroticism. We conclude that goal-conflict has unique neuroeconomics effects on choice biases; and that these reflect anxiety processing that is not effectively captured by trait anxiety or neuroticism. Copyright © 2020 Neo, Tinker and McNaughton.Vestibular migraine (VM) is a multidisciplinary disease under exploration. Multiple temporal patterns of vertigo and migraine make it difficult to diagnose VM, and their effect on the clinical features of VM is still unclear. Here we investigated the clinical features of VM under three temporal patterns. 172 VM patients were enrolled in this study and divided into three groups 86 patients in group A had an earlier onset of migraine than vertigo, 35 patients in group B had an earlier onset of vertigo than migraine, and 51 patients in group C had concurrent vertigo and migraine. No significant difference was found among three groups regarding types, intensity and accompanying symptoms of the vestibular attack. Patients in group C presented higher frequency and longer duration of vertigo than group A and B, while patients in group A presented lower frequency and shorter duration of headaches than group B and C. Additionally, the frequency, duration, intensity and accompanying symptoms of headache in group A decreased significantly after the onset of vertigo, especially in women around menopause. We hypothesized that vestibular stimulation could inhibit the trigeminal pain pathway, while painful trigeminal stimulation could excite the vestibular system. Our findings may contribute to the clinical identification of VM and further clarification of its pathogenesis. Copyright © 2020 Yan, Guo, Liu, Lu, Wang, Hu, Xia, Ni, Lu and Zhao.Background Activated protein C (APC), a serine protease with antithrombotic effects, protects in animal models of ischemic stroke by suppressing inflammation and enhancing vascular integrity, angiogenesis, neurogenesis and neuroprotection. A small number of animal studies suggest it might also have therapeutic potential in multiple sclerosis (MS), though results have been mixed. Based on these conflicting data, the goals of this study were to clarify the therapeutic potential of APC in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS and to determine mechanistically how APC mediates this protective effect. Methods The protective potential of APC was examined in a chronic progressive model of EAE. Vascular breakdown, tight junction protein expression and vascular expression of fibronectin and α5β1 integrin as well as vascularity and glial activation were analyzed using immunofluorescence (IF) of spinal cord sections taken from mice with established EAE. The direct influence of APC on microglial der, Fernández, Griffin and Milner.Hashimoto's encephalopathy (HE) is a rare neuropsychiatric syndrome characterized by elevated levels of anti-thyroid antibodies. Diverse manifestations make timely diagnosis of HE difficult. Herein, we report a case of HE, in which the clinical symptoms and laboratory test results mimicked viral encephalitis. A 59-year-old male patient, who presented with a fever, headache, slow and unclear speech, sentence confusion, elevated levels of anti-thyroid antibodies in the serum, an increased white blood cell count, and positivity for anti-thyroid antibodies in the CSF, was finally diagnosed with HE and responded well to a small dose of methylprednisolone. This report helps bring the attention of clinicians to the fact that HE should be considered when cases of unexplained encephalopathy are encountered. Copyright © 2020 Yu, Yang, Ma, Xie, Sun and Meng.[This corrects the article DOI 10.3389/fnins.2019.01449.]. Copyright © 2020 Kao, Shailja, Jiang, Zhang, Khan, Chen and Manjunath.Retinal alterations have recently been associated with numerous neurodegenerative diseases. Rhodopsin is a G-protein coupled receptor found in the rod cells of the retina. As a biomarker associated with retinal thinning and degeneration, it bears potential in the early detection and monitoring of several neurodegenerative diseases. In this review article, we summarize the findings of correlations between rhodopsin and several neurodegenerative disorders as well as the potential of a novel technique, cSLO, in the quantification of rhodopsin. Copyright © 2020 Lenahan, Sanghavi, Huang and Zhang.Mapping the cytoarchitecture of the whole brain can reveal the organizational logic of neural systems. However, this remains a significant challenge, especially for gyrencephalic brains with a large volume. Here we propose an integrated pipeline for generating a cytoarchitectonic atlas with single-cell resolution of the whole brain. To analyze a large-volume brain, we used a modified en-bloc Nissl staining protocol to achieve uniform staining of large-scale brain specimens from ferret (Mustela putorius furo). By combining whole-brain imaging and big data processing, we established strategies for parsing cytoarchitectural information at a voxel resolution of 0.33 μm × 0.33 μm × 1 μm and terabyte-scale data analysis. Using the cytoarchitectonic datasets for adult ferret brain, we identified giant pyramidal neurons in ferret brains and provide the first report of their morphological diversity, neurochemical phenotype, and distribution patterns in the whole brain in three dimensions. This pipeline will facilitate studies on the organization and development of the mammalian brains, from that of rodents to the gyrencephalic brains of ferret and even primates. Copyright © 2020 Long, Jiang, Zhang, Chen, Jia, Xu, Luo, Gong, Li and Li.In transcranial penetration, ultrasound undergoes refraction, diffraction, multi-reflection, and mode conversion. These factors lead to phase aberration and waveform distortion, which impede the realization of transcranial ultrasonic imaging and therapy. Ray tracing has been used to correct the phase aberration and is computationally more efficient than traditional full-wave simulation. However, when ray tracing has been used for transcranial investigation, it has generally been on the premise that the skull medium is homogeneous. GSK126 To find suitable homogeneity that balances computational speed and accuracy, the present work investigates how the focus deviates after phase-aberration compensation with ray tracing using time-reversal theory. The waveforms are synthetized with ray tracing for phase aberration, by which the properties of the skull bone are simplified for refraction calculation as those of either (i) the cortical bone or (ii) the mean of the entire skull bone, and the focusing accuracy is evaluated cranial ultrasonic path estimation and offers promising applications in transcranial ultrasonic focusing and imaging. Copyright © 2020 Jiang, Li, Xu, Li, Liu and Ta.