Robbashley8862

SMAD2 is a transcription factor, the activity of which is regulated by members of the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) superfamily. Although activation of SMAD2 and SMAD3 downstream of TGFβ or myostatin signaling is known to inhibit myogenesis, we found that SMAD2 in the absence of TGFβ signaling promotes terminal myogenic differentiation. We found that, during myogenic differentiation, SMAD2 expression is induced. Knockout of SMAD2 expression in primary myoblasts did not affect the efficiency of myogenic differentiation but produced smaller myotubes with reduced expression of the terminal differentiation marker myogenin. Conversely, overexpression of SMAD2 stimulated myogenin expression, and enhanced both differentiation and fusion, and these effects were independent of classical activation by the TGFβ receptor complex. Loss of Smad2 in muscle satellite cells in vivo resulted in decreased muscle fiber caliber and impaired regeneration after acute injury. Taken together, we demonstrate that SMAD2 is an important positive regulator of myogenic differentiation, in part through the regulation of Myog.Fine-tuned gene expression is crucial for neurodevelopment. The gene expression program is tightly controlled at different levels, including RNA decay. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation-mediated degradation of RNA is essential for brain development. However, m6A methylation impacts not only RNA stability, but also other RNA metabolism processes. How RNA decay contributes to brain development is largely unknown. Here, we show that Exosc10, a RNA exonuclease subunit of the RNA exosome complex, is indispensable for forebrain development. We report that cortical cells undergo overt apoptosis, culminating in cortical agenesis upon conditional deletion of Exosc10 in mouse cortex. Mechanistically, Exosc10 directly binds and degrades transcripts of the P53 signaling-related genes, such as Aen and Bbc3. Overall, our findings suggest a crucial role for Exosc10 in suppressing the P53 pathway, in which the rapid turnover of the apoptosis effectors Aen and Bbc3 mRNAs is essential for cell survival and normal cortical histogenesis.The microtubule motor cytoplasmic dynein 1 (dynein) and its essential activator dynactin have conserved roles in spindle assembly and positioning during female meiosis and mitosis, but their contribution to male meiosis remains poorly understood. Here, we characterize the G33S mutation in the C. elegans dynactin subunit DNC-1, which corresponds to G59S in human p150Glued that causes motor neuron disease. In spermatocytes, dnc-1(G33S) delays spindle assembly and penetrantly inhibits anaphase spindle elongation in meiosis I, which prevents the segregation of homologous chromosomes. By contrast, chromosomes segregate without errors in the early dnc-1(G33S) embryo. Deletion of the DNC-1 N-terminus shows that defective meiosis in dnc-1(G33S) spermatocytes is not due to the inability of DNC-1 to interact with microtubules. Instead, our results suggest that the DNC-1(G33S) protein, which is aggregation prone in vitro, is less stable in spermatocytes than the early embryo, resulting in different phenotypic severity in the two dividing tissues. Thus, the dnc-1(G33S) mutant reveals that dynein-dynactin drive meiotic chromosome segregation in spermatocytes and illustrates that the extent to which protein misfolding leads to loss of function can vary significantly between cell types.Macrophages are components of the innate immune system with key roles in tissue inflammation and repair. It is now evident that macrophages also support organogenesis, but few studies have characterized their identity, ontogeny and function during heart development. Here, we show that the distribution and prevalence of resident macrophages in the subepicardial compartment of the developing heart coincides with the emergence of new lymphatics, and that macrophages interact closely with the nascent lymphatic capillaries. Consequently, global macrophage deficiency led to extensive vessel disruption, with mutant hearts exhibiting shortened and mis-patterned lymphatics. The origin of cardiac macrophages was linked to the yolk sac and foetal liver. Moreover, the Cx3cr1 + myeloid lineage was found to play essential functions in the remodelling of the lymphatic endothelium. Mechanistically, macrophage hyaluronan was required for lymphatic sprouting by mediating direct macrophage-lymphatic endothelial cell interactions. Together, these findings reveal insight into the role of macrophages as indispensable mediators of lymphatic growth during the development of the mammalian cardiac vasculature.Microtubules (MTs) regulate numerous cellular processes, but their roles in brain morphogenesis are not well known. Here, we show that CAMSAP3, a non-centrosomal microtubule regulator, is important for shaping the lateral ventricles. In differentiating ependymal cells, CAMSAP3 became concentrated at the apical domains, serving to generate MT networks at these sites. Camsap3-mutated mice showed abnormally narrow lateral ventricles, in which excessive stenosis or fusion was induced, leading to a decrease of neural stem cells at the ventricular and subventricular zones. this website This defect was ascribed at least in part to a failure of neocortical ependymal cells to broaden their apical domain, a process necessary for expanding the ventricular cavities. mTORC1 was required for ependymal cell growth but its activity was downregulated in mutant cells. Lysosomes, which mediate mTORC1 activation, tended to be reduced at the apical regions of the mutant cells, along with disorganized apical MT networks at the corresponding sites. These findings suggest that CAMSAP3 supports mTORC1 signaling required for ependymal cell growth via MT network regulation, and, in turn, shaping of the lateral ventricles.Formation of a zygote is coupled with extensive epigenetic reprogramming to enable appropriate inheritance of histone methylation and prevent developmental delays. In Caenorhabditis elegans, this reprogramming is mediated by the H3K4me2 demethylase SPR-5 and the H3K9 methyltransferase, MET-2. In contrast, the H3K36 methyltransferase MES-4 maintains H3K36me2/3 at germline genes between generations to facilitate re-establishment of the germline. To determine whether the MES-4 germline inheritance pathway antagonizes spr-5; met-2 reprogramming, we examined the interaction between these two pathways. We found that the developmental delay of spr-5; met-2 mutant progeny is associated with ectopic H3K36me3 and the ectopic expression of MES-4-targeted germline genes in somatic tissues. Furthermore, the developmental delay is dependent upon MES-4 and the H3K4 methyltransferase, SET-2. We propose that MES-4 prevents crucial germline genes from being repressed by antagonizing maternal spr-5; met-2 reprogramming. Thus, the balance of inherited histone modifications is necessary to distinguish germline versus soma and prevent developmental delay.