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4 cases/year (P < 0.001). Trainees in all specialties reported around twice as many cases as the respective Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education required minimum numbers. Neurosurgery residents demonstrated increasing participation as lead surgeons by 0.7 cases/year (P= 0.04) and a concurrent decline as senior surgeons by 1.4 cases/year (P < 0.01).

Neurosurgery residents exceeded their minimum requirements for CEA, with increasing trend in higher level of participation. But neurosurgery residents' exposure to this procedure was far less significant than their colleagues in vascular surgery, a gap that may widen over time and should be addressed proactively.

Neurosurgery residents exceeded their minimum requirements for CEA, with increasing trend in higher level of participation. But neurosurgery residents' exposure to this procedure was far less significant than their colleagues in vascular surgery, a gap that may widen over time and should be addressed proactively.This ethopharmacological investigation comprised a long-term field study that examined the function of serotonergic and vasotonergic systems in territoriality. Adult territorial and non-territorial (silent) male coquí frogs (Eleutherodactylus coqui) were injected (IP) with either arginine vasotocin (AVT) or one of two serotonin agonists, 5-HT2A/2C selective agonist, (±) DOI - [(±)-1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane], or 2) the 5-HT1A selective agonist, 8-OH-DPAT - [(±)-2-dipropylamino-8-hydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene]. Control groups received saline injections. Each male received two injections. Following the first injection, whether AVT or a 5HT agonist, the male was observed so that behavior could be documented prior to the second injection, which consisted of the other drug class. All frogs were marked, placed back in the exact location as captured, and observed for all behaviors and vocalizations. Territoriality in E. coqui includes several behavioral components movement into a calling site, presentation of dominant physical displays, emitting advertisement calls, and defense a territory (including the use of physical force and/or aggressive vocalizations). This investigation found that particular territorial behaviors were significantly influenced by 5HT and AVT action. Initiation of advertisement calling is activated by AVT and suppressed by 5HT, calling rate is affected by 5HT activation, presentation of dominant physical displays are activated by AVT and repressed by 5HT activation, and movement associated with activation of territorial behavior is stimulated by AVT. These data suggested that both 5HT and AVT have a profound impact on territoriality and are two fundamental neuroendocrine systems that govern territorial behavior in social systems.Measurement of attentional performance in animal behavioral research allows us to investigate neural mechanisms underlying attentional processes and translate results to better understand human attentional function, dysfunction and drug treatments to reverse dysfunction. One useful method to measure attention in experimental animal studies is to use an operant visual signal detection paradigm, consisting of two levers and the rapid flashing of a cue lamp to signal a reward. In this study, we tested the relative sensitivity of this task when using different variants of the stimulus signal, varying brightness or duration of the light cue. To investigate roles of different neural systems underlying attentional processes, we assessed the sensitivity of attentional performance with these two different cue variations with blockade of muscarinic acetylcholine and NMDA glutamate receptors with scopolamine and MK-801 (dizocilpine). Operant signal detection was tested using a signal light that varied in intensity (0.02rformance.Taurine is one of the most abundant amino acids in vertebrates involved in important physiological functions, including osmoregulation, membrane stability, and neuronal activity. The pleiotropic effects of taurine support the existence of different mechanisms of action (e.g., modulation of GABAA, strychnine-sensitive glycine, and NMDA receptors), which can play a role in aggressive-related responses. However, the mechanisms underlying the effects of taurine on aggression are still poorly understood. Because aggression has been associated with diverse central mechanisms, especially serotonergic activity, we aimed to investigate the involvement of this system in taurine-induced aggression in zebrafish. We treated adult zebrafish with ρ-chlorophenylalanine (ρCPA), an inhibitor of the serotonin synthesis, as well as 5-HT1A receptor antagonist and agonist (WAY100135 and buspirone, respectively). Taurine effects were tested individually at three concentrations (42, 150, and 400 mg/L) for 60 min. We further analyzed the effects on aggression and locomotion using the mirror-induced aggression test. Taurine concentration that changed behavioral responses was selected to the succeeding pharmacological experiments using ρCPA, WAY100135, and buspirone. this website We found that buspirone did not alter the aggression. Yet, 42 mg/L taurine increased aggression, which was abolished by ρCPA and WAY100135, indicating the involvement of 5-HT1A receptors in taurine-mediated aggression. These set of data support an indirect mechanism mediating taurine-induced aggression via serotonin release and activation of 5-HT1A receptors in zebrafish. While the exact mechanisms underlying aggression are still unclear, our novel findings reveal a key role of the serotonergic system in the effects of taurine, supporting the use of zebrafish models to understand the neural basis of aggression in vertebrates.

Delay discounting, in which an animal chooses between a small, immediate or large, delayed reinforcer, is an experimental model of impulsivity. In previous studies, d-amphetamine has both increased and decreased preference for larger-delayed reinforcers depending on experimental conditions.

Identify genotype X environment interactions responsible for these disparate findings in a single study and assess the hypothesis that baseline-dependence unifies d-amphetamine's effects.

Delay discounting by BALB/c and C57Bl/6 mice was evaluated using a choice procedure in which six delays to a larger reinforcer were presented in a single session. Components were presented both with and without stimuli that uniquely signaled reinforcer delays. d-Amphetamine's (0.1-1.7mg/kg) effects on delay and magnitude sensitivity were assessed when specific stimuli did or did not uniquely signal the delay to a larger reinforcer. d-Amphetamine's effects were determined using a model-comparison approach.

During baseline, magnitude and delay sensitivity were identical across signal conditions for BALB/c mice and generally greater than the C57Bl/6 mice.