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Sodium nitroprusside (SNP) is a potent vasodilator that first gained FDA approval for the treatment of severe hypertension in 1974. First discovered in 1849 by Playfair, its applications in human medicine can be traced back to the early 1920s, with the first safety and efficacy data published in 1955. After an initial delay in gaining FDA approval due to difficulty in development of a chemically stable formulation, SNP gained widespread use as a fast-acting antihypertensive agent and has been used clinically for hypertensive crises, heart failure, cardiac/vascular surgery, pediatric surgery, and a variety of other acute applications. While sodium nitroprusside potential adverse effects and toxicity have led to its replacement by newer agents in some practices, it remains a useful tool in certain difficult clinical situations that require a potent, fast-acting, titratable vasodilator.Whether found on personal examination, by a physician on clinical examination or incidentally found on imaging, new growth or mass can be extremely alarming to a patient. Ensuring a quick and accurate diagnosis with minimal psychological and physical suffering on the part of the patient should be the healthcare team's highest priority. While an effective and thorough history and physical combined with advanced imaging modalities can now diagnose with a high degree of confidence, the etiology of many new masses, sometimes there is still diagnostic uncertainty. In these cases, a tissue or fluid sample is typically necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Furthermore, in the era of advanced biologic drugs and genotyping, even when a diagnosis is known, a tissue sample combined with genetic and molecular testing may be necessary to determine the most effective treatment modality. Finally, in limited cases, fine-needle aspiration may be used therapeutically to remove fluid from abscesses, cysts, or seromas.The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (sedimentation rate, sed rate, and ESR for short) is a common hematology test that may indicate and monitor an increase in inflammatory activity within the body caused by one or more conditions such as autoimmune disease, infections or tumors. The ESR is not specific for any one disease but is used in combination with other tests to determine the presence of increased inflammatory activity. The ESR has long been used as a "sickness indicator" due to its reproducibility and low cost. Over many decades, several methods have evolved to perform the test. However, the reference method for measuring the ESR proposed by the International Committee for Standardization in Haematology (ICSH) is based on the findings described by Westergren a century ago. Newer automated systems using closed blood collection tubes and automatic readers have been introduced into laboratories to decrease the biohazardous risk to operators and to decrease the time that it takes to perform the ESR. The Wesby the ICSH. Even after the advent of automated machines used for the analysis of the ESR, the Westergren method was still confirmed as the gold standard in 2011 by both the ICSH and by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI).More than five million Americans have Alzheimer disease, and a subset of these cases is due to genetics. This includes familial Alzheimer’s disease, which is caused by mutations in the presenilin-1 and presenilin-2 genes.The full-field electroretinogram (ffERG) is an ophthalmologic test that provides non-invasive objective quantitative measures of the electrical activity in the retina. The ffERG represents an electrical response from the retina to a flash of light and measures global retinal function. Analysis of the ffERG waveform components can provide useful diagnostic information for distinguishing various retinal diseases, especially when the etiology of vision loss remains unclear following standard ophthalmologic clinical examination.Peripheral vascular disease (PAD) is a chronic progressive atherosclerotic disease leading to partial or total peripheral vascular occlusion. PAD typically affects the abdominal aorta, iliac arteries, lower limbs, and occasionally the upper extremities. PAD affects nearly 200 million people worldwide with increasing global importance due to longer life expectancy and prolonged risk factor exposure. Patients with PAD have a variable disease presentation and course with some patients remaining asymptomatic and with others progressing to arterial ulceration, claudication, resting limb ischemia, and limb loss. PAD is a cardiovascular disease equivalent, with associated high risk fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular events frequently occurring, such as myocardial infarction and stroke. PAD is a progressive, debilitating systemic disease which requires interprofessional involvement for improved patient outcomes.The bithermal caloric test, first described by Robert Barany, assesses the function of the lateral vestibular canal. The brainstem vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) causes tonic eye deviation, opposite to that of the head turn, to maintain fixation on an object. This action is, however, counteracted by the saccades from the frontal eye field in a reverse direction to maintain fixation on a moving object, which results in the fast component of the horizontal nystagmus seen during the test. The caloric test is one of the tests included within the electronystagmography and is also a component of the brainstem reflexes while assessing the patient for brain stem integrity.Berry (saccular) aneurysms are the most common type of intracranial aneurysm, representing 90% of cerebral aneurysms. Generally speaking, there is a ballooning arising from a weakened area in the wall of a blood vessel in the brain. Depending on the size of the aneurysm, their symptomatology ranges from asymptomatic to intracerebral hemorrhage (subarachnoid) in the most extreme cases. Berry aneurysm is an older terminology that has mostly been replaced by saccular aneurysm. Immunology inhibitor The new nomenclature goes against the old tradition of likening a pathologic process to a variety of fruit products. Aneurysm is from the Greek word, aneurysma, meaning dilation.