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Little is known about how effort is represented for different kinds of tasks. Recently, we suggested that it would help to establish empirical benchmarks for this problem. Accordingly, Feghhi and Rosenbaum (Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception and Performance, 45983-994, 2019) estimated how many additional digits to be memorized corresponded to navigating through a narrow gap versus a wide gap. The estimates were based on a study in which participants chose between walking paths with associated memory demands. We found that participants were equally willing to choose to walk through a narrow gap as to walk through a wide gap when the narrow-gap walk required memorization of 0.55 fewer digits on average than the wide-gap walk. In the present experiment, we sought to replicate and extend this previous finding in two ways (1) by presenting the memory digits in auditory rather than visual form to test the hypothesis that participants used phonological recoding of the visually presented digits; and (2) by providing a new metric of the relative difficulty of navigation errors compared to recall errors. We provided 36 university students with two action/memorization options per trial and asked them to choose the easier option. Each option had varying degrees of physical demand (walking through a wide or narrow gap) and mental demand (memorizing 6, 7, or 8 digits). We expected performance to be comparable to what we observed earlier with visually presented digits to be memorized, and this prediction was confirmed. We also used a new metric to show that navigation errors were implicitly judged to be 17% more costly than recall errors. The fact that this percentage was not 0 indicates that reducing percent error was not the only basis for reducing effort.Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified hundreds of primarily non-coding disease-susceptibility variants that further need functional interpretation to prioritize and discriminate the disease-relevant variants. We present a comprehensive genome-wide non-coding variant prioritization scheme followed by validation using Pyrosequencing and TaqMan assays in asthma. We implemented a composite Functional Annotation Score (cFAS) to investigate over 32,000 variants consisting of 1525 GWAS-lead asthma-susceptibility variants and their LD proxies (r2 ≥ 0.80). Functional annotation pipeline in cFAS revealed 274 variants with significant score at 1% false discovery rate. This study implicates a novel locus 4p16 (SLC26A1) with eQTL variant (rs11936407) and known loci in 17q12-21 and 5q22 which encode ORM1-like protein 3 (ORMDL3, rs406527, and rs12936231) and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP, rs3806932 and rs10073816) epithelial gene, respectively. Follow-up validation analysis through pyrosequencing of CpG sites in and nearby rs4065275 and rs11936407 showed genotype-dependent hypomethylation on asthma cases compared with healthy controls. Prioritized variants are enriched for asthma-specific histone modification associated with active chromatin (H3K4me1 and H3K27ac) in T cells, B cells, lung, and immune-related interferon gamma signaling pathways. Our findings, together with those from prior studies, suggest that SNPs can affect asthma by regulating enhancer activity, and our comprehensive bioinformatics and functional analysis could lead to biological insights into asthma pathogenesis.Graphic abstract.Whether effects of psychotherapies for depression are sustained after treatment is an important clinical issue. In older depressed children and adolescents such treatments have been shown to be sustained for several months. Rates of remission ranged from 62-69% at 3 months-1 year in one large scale study. To date there has been no data to inform whether the effects of earlier interventions for depression in the preschool period are sustained. To address this, we used data from a randomized controlled trial of a novel early intervention for depression called "Parent Child Interaction Therapy Emotion Development" (PCIT-ED) that has shown efficacy for depression, parenting stress and parenting practices. Participants and their caregivers were re-assessed 18 weeks after treatment completion. All study procedures were approved by the Washington University School of Medicine Internal Review Board prior to data collection. Study findings demonstrated a high rate of sustained gains in remission from depression, decreased parenting stress and parental depression 18 weeks after completion of a trial of PCIT-ED in a population of young children. Parental response to the child expression of emotion, a key treatment target drifted back towards baseline after 3 months. Relapse rates were 17% and predictors of relapse were the presence of an externalizing disorder, a higher number of co-morbid disorders and poorer guilt reparation and emotion regulation measured at treatment completion. This extends the body of literature demonstrating parent-child interaction therapy (PCIT) to have sustained effects on targeted disruptive symptom profiles to early childhood depression. p97 inhibitor This relatively low relapse rate after 18 weeks is comparable or better than many empirically proven treatments for depression in older children.Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the main route of transmission in Asia, and characterization of HBV quasispecies is needed to further understand virus evolution and adaptation. To understand changes in HBV during mother-to-child transmission, we enrolled nine pairs of mothers and children in the study, including a set of twins. Three groups were infected with HBV genotype C, and six groups were infected with HBV genotype B. The full-length HBV genome was amplified by PCR from serum samples before antiviral treatment, the whole viral genomes from each pair were sequenced, and the complexity and diversity of the quasispecies were analyzed. The entropy of transmitted HBV in children was found to be lower than their mothers, suggesting that there was a bottleneck effect during HBV transmission from the mother to the child. Selective evolution was shown by calculating πN and πS in the whole genomes, and the highest values were obtained for the X gene, which plays a role in viral replication and immune escape.