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The latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG)-the decline in species richness from the equator to the poles-is classically considered as the most pervasive macroecological pattern on Earth, but the timing of its establishment, its ubiquity in the geological past, and explanatory mechanisms remain uncertain. By combining empirical and modeling approaches, we show that the first representatives of marine phytoplankton exhibited an LDG from the beginning of the Cambrian, when most major phyla appeared. However, this LDG showed a single peak of diversity centered on the Southern Hemisphere, in contrast to the equatorial peak classically observed for most modern taxa. We find that this LDG most likely corresponds to a truncated bimodal gradient, which probably results from an uneven sediment preservation, smaller sampling effort, and/or lower initial diversity in the Northern Hemisphere. Variation of the documented LDG through time resulted primarily from fluctuations in annual sea-surface temperature and long-term climate changes.Value is often associated with reward, emphasizing its hedonic aspects. However, when circumstances change, value must also change (a compass outvalues gold, if you are lost). How are value representations in the brain reshaped under different behavioral goals? To answer this question, we devised a new task that decouples usefulness from its hedonic attributes, allowing us to study flexible goal-dependent mapping. Here, we show that, unlike sensory cortices, regions in the prefrontal cortex (PFC)-usually associated with value computation-remap their representation of perceptually identical items according to how useful the item has been to achieve a specific goal. Furthermore, we identify a coding scheme in the PFC that represents value regardless of the goal, thus supporting generalization across contexts. [https://www.selleckchem.com/products/tvb-2640.html https://www.selleckchem.com/products/tvb-2640.html] Our work questions the dominant view that equates value with reward, showing how a change in goals triggers a reorganization of the neural representation of value, enabling flexible behavior.Graphene with its unique electrical properties is a promising candidate for carbon-based biosensors such as microelectrodes and field effect transistors. Recently, graphene biosensors were successfully used for extracellular recording of action potentials in electrogenic cells; however, intracellular recordings remain beyond their current capabilities because of the lack of an efficient cell poration method. Here, we present a microelectrode platform consisting of out-of-plane grown three-dimensional fuzzy graphene (3DFG) that enables recording of intracellular cardiac action potentials with high signal-to-noise ratio. We exploit the generation of hot carriers by ultrafast pulsed laser for porating the cell membrane and creating an intimate contact between the 3DFG electrodes and the intracellular domain. This approach enables us to detect the effects of drugs on the action potential shape of human-derived cardiomyocytes. The 3DFG electrodes combined with laser poration may be used for all-carbon intracellular microelectrode arrays to allow monitoring of the cellular electrophysiological state.During transcription initiation, the general transcription factor TFIIH marks RNA polymerase II by phosphorylating Ser5 of the carboxyl-terminal domain (CTD) of Rpb1, which is followed by extensive modifications coupled to transcription elongation, mRNA processing, and histone dynamics. We have determined a 3.5-Å resolution cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the TFIIH kinase module (TFIIK in yeast), which is composed of Kin28, Ccl1, and Tfb3, yeast homologs of CDK7, cyclin H, and MAT1, respectively. The carboxyl-terminal region of Tfb3 was lying at the edge of catalytic cleft of Kin28, where a conserved Tfb3 helix served to stabilize the activation loop in its active conformation. By combining the structure of TFIIK with the previous cryo-EM structure of the preinitiation complex, we extend the previously proposed model of the CTD path to the active site of TFIIK.Tuning emission color of molecular fluorophores is of fundamental interest as it directly reflects the manipulation of excited states at the quantum mechanical level. Despite recent progress in molecular design and engineering on single fluorophores, a systematic methodology to obtain multicolor emission in aggregated or solid states, which gives rise to practical implications, remains scarce. In this study, we present a general strategy to continuously tune the emission color of a single-fluorophore aggregate by polymerization-mediated through-space charge transfer (TSCT). Using a library of well-defined styrenic donor (D) polymers grown from an acceptor (A) fluorophore by controlled radical polymerization, we found that the solid-state emission color can be fine-tuned by varying three molecular parameters (i) the monomer substituent, (ii) the end groups of the polymer, and (iii) the polymer chain length. Experimental and theoretical investigations reveal that the color tunability originates from the structurally dependent TSCT process that regulates charge transfer energy.Meiosis is critical to generating oocytes and ensuring female fertility; however, the mechanisms regulating the switch from mitotic primordial germ cells to meiotic germ cells are poorly understood. Here, we implicate intercellular bridges (ICBs) in this state transition. We used three-dimensional in toto imaging to map meiotic initiation in the mouse fetal ovary and revealed a radial geometry of this transition that precedes the established anterior-posterior wave. Our studies reveal that appropriate timing of meiotic entry across the ovary and coordination of mitotic-meiotic transition within a cyst depend on the ICB component Tex14, which we show is required for functional cytoplasmic sharing. We find that Tex14 mutants more rapidly attenuate the pluripotency transcript Dppa3 upon meiotic initiation, and Dppa3 mutants undergo premature meiosis similar to Tex14 Together, these results lead to a model that ICBs coordinate and buffer the transition from pluripotency to meiosis through dilution of regulatory factors.