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A growing number of studies make claims about canine sociability in both applied and basic contexts. Yet, there is currently no standard for measuring sociability in dogs. The purpose of this two-part study was to determine whether procedural differences among canine sociability tests would affect dogs' behavior. In Experiment 1, we used a mixed-subjects design to assess whether experimenter position (standing, sitting, or kneeling) and presence of affection (petting and praise or none) affected leashed dogs' social behavior. Mixed-effect logistic regression modeling showed statistically significant main effects and interactions between posture and social contact. On average, dogs were more social when the experimenter knelt and provided social contact. However, there were individual differences in how dogs were affected by changes in procedure. In Experiment 2, we examined correspondence between leashed and unleashed dogs' social behaviors including time in proximity, following patterns, eye gaze, body orientation, jumping, and touching. Individual differences were examined by calculating a binomial mixed-effect logistic regression with condition (leashed, off-leash, following) and subject ID as fixed effects. Interactions were statistically significant for all behaviors, indicating that individual differences were present. The results have implications for the validity of sociability tests.Nest sharing in rodents and other vertebrates is believed to be promoted by the gain of thermoregulatory advantages, reproductive imperatives or to be a by-product of other benefits to group living. Here, we studied the patterns of nest box sharing over a yearly cycle in a wild population of the arboreal, nocturnal and heterothermic woodland dormouse (Graphiurus murinus). We evaluated whether the timing of dormouse aggregations and group composition were compatible with thermoregulatory or reproductive imperatives. Nest box sharing between two or more dormice was observed throughout the year and was not correlated with monthly minimum temperatures. Therefore, the observed aggregations could not be exclusively related to the gain of a thermoregulatory advantage. [https://www.selleckchem.com/products/gsk2606414.html GSK2606414 in vivo] All-male and all-female aggregations were more frequent during the mating season, following which some females seemed to engage in communal nesting and continued to share nests with some of their offspring well beyond the weaning period. Our data suggest that nest sharing was only partly affected by basic reproductive needs. We hypothesize that dormouse aggregations were ultimately favoured by a high level of intra-sexual tolerance elicited by the presence of numerous kin-related and familiar individuals in the population. This seems to stem from the high inter-individual spatial overlaps and the promiscuous mating system previously reported in this species. Further studies focusing on natural resting sites and genetic relatedness between individuals are needed to confirm our findings and test our hypothesis.Previous experiments using tentacle lowering conditioning in terrestrial snails Cornu aspersum have shown extinction and recovery of the conditioned response (CR) as a consequence of both inserting a delay between the extinction and test (spontaneous recovery) and of re-exposing the animal to the unconditioned stimulus after extinction (reinstatement). Two experiments that examined recovery of the CR due to a change in context (renewal effect) were carried out to continue this line of research. In Experiment 1, subjects received conditioning with an odour (CS) followed by extinction in the presence of another odour (CS + C), before being exposed to the original one (CS). In Experiment 2, conditioning and extinction of an odour CS took place in the presence of different circadian contextual cues (hour of the day and presence of light). The results showed that a return to the original context of conditioned training, after the extinction in a different context, either defined by an odour (Experiment 1) or by circadian cues (Experiment 2), produce a recovery of the CR compared to suitable control groups. These results can be interpreted as an instance of ABA renewal effect and they provide information about psychological mechanisms involved in extinction processes.Recent evidence indicates that predation risk plays a special role in the rodent behavior of dams and offspring, but little is known about the effect of maternal exposure to the predator cues in the absence of pups. Here, we assessed the effects of repeated predator odor exposure on various maternal responses in postpartum Brandt's voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii). We also examined offspring's behavioral response to a novel environment. Only mother voles were exposed to distilled water, rabbit urine and cat urine for 60 min daily from postpartum day (PP) 1-18. Maternal behavior was immediately tested after these exposures on PP1, 3, 6, 9 and 18. Repeated cat odor (CO) and rabbit odor (RO) exposure disrupted hovering over pups in a time-dependent fashion. Repeated CO exposure also time-dependently disrupted pup retrieval, whereas RO exposure induced long-term reduction in pup licking. Juvenile offspring of CO-exposed mothers showed increased locomotor activity and decreased rearing in the open field at postnatal day 30. These findings demonstrated that maternal exposure to predator or non-predator odors had a disruptive effect on the maternal behavior of Brandt's voles when only the mother was exposed to these odors, and that the adversity experience with predation risk significantly impacted the behavioral development of offspring. Future work should explore possible behavioral mechanisms, such as the effect of predation risk, on the dams' emotional processing or pup preference.Objective To determine the rate of PT referral and patient and physician characteristics associated with PT referral for benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) and other peripheral vestibular disorders (PVDs) in U.S. ambulatory care clinics. Design Cross sectional analysis of the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey 2004-2015 SETTING Ambulatory care clinics in the US PARTICIPANTS We identified 5.6 million weighted adult visits for BPPV [ICD-9-CM 386.11] and 6.6 million weighted visits for other PVDs [ICD-9-CM 386.1-386.9, excluding 386.11 and 386.2] made by patients 18 years and older from 2004-2015. Interventions Not applicable MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Patient, clinical, and physician characteristics were extracted, and descriptive statistics were stratified by referral to PT. Two multivariable logistic regression models were estimated for each diagnostic group (BPPV and other PVDs) to identify predictors of PT referral. Results PT referrals for BPPV increased from 6.2% in 2004-2006 to 12.9% in 2013-2015 while PT referrals for other PVDs decreased from 3.