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iners), resulting in significantly altered mucosal immune milieu over time. In a linear mixed model, the median concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines were significantly reduced in women who cleared BV compared to pre-treatment. BV persistence and recurrence were strongly associated with mucosal cytokine profiles that may increase the risk of HIV acquisition. Concentrations of these cytokines were differentially regulated by changes in the relative abundance of BVAB1 and G. vaginalis. We conclude that metronidazole for the treatment of BV induced short-term shifts in the vaginal microbiota and mucosal cytokines, while treatment failures promoted persistent elevation of pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations in the genital tract. These data suggest the need to improve clinical management of BV to minimize BV related reproductive risk factors.The topic of standardization in relation to allergen products has been discussed by allergists, regulators, and manufacturers for a long time. In contrast to synthetic medicinal products, the natural origin of allergen products makes the necessary comparability difficult to achieve. This holds true for both aspects of standardization Batch-to-batch consistency (or product-specific standardization) and comparability among products from different manufacturers (or cross-product comparability). In this review, we focus on how the United States and the European Union have tackled the topic of allergen product standardization in the past, covering the early joint standardization efforts in the 1970s and 1980s as well as the different paths taken by the two players thereafter until today. So far, these two paths have been based on rather classical immunological methods, including the corresponding benefits like simple feasability. New technologies such as mass spectrometry present an opportunity to redefine the field of allergen standardization in the future.Long-read sequencing approaches have considerably improved the quality and contiguity of genome assemblies. Such platforms bear the potential to resolve even extremely complex regions, such as multigenic immune families and repetitive stretches of DNA. Deep sequencing coverage, however, is required to overcome low nucleotide accuracy, especially in regions with high homopolymer density, copy number variation, and sequence similarity, such as the MHC and KIR gene clusters of the immune system. Therefore, we have adapted a targeted enrichment protocol in combination with long-read sequencing to efficiently annotate complex KIR gene regions. Using Cas9 endonuclease activity, segments of the KIR gene cluster were enriched and sequenced on an Oxford Nanopore Technologies platform. This provided sufficient coverage to accurately resolve and phase highly complex KIR haplotypes. Our strategy eliminates PCR-induced amplification errors, facilitates rapid characterization of large and complex multigenic regions, including its epigenetic footprint, and is applicable in multiple species, even in the absence of a reference genome.Nanoparticle systems are being explored for the display of carbohydrate antigens, characterized by multimeric presentation of glycan epitopes and special chemico-physical properties of nano-sized particles. Among them, outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are receiving great attention, combining antigen presentation with the immunopotentiator effect of the Toll-like receptor agonists naturally present on these systems. [https://www.selleckchem.com/btk.html BTK inhibitor] In this context, we are testing Generalized Modules for Membrane Antigens (GMMA), OMVs naturally released from Gram-negative bacteria mutated to increase blebbing, as carrier for polysaccharides. Here, we investigated the impact of saccharide length, density, and attachment site on the immune response elicited by GMMA in animal models, using a variety of structurally diverse polysaccharides from different pathogens (i.e., Neisseria meningitidis serogroup A and C, Haemophilus influenzae type b, and streptococcus Group A Carbohydrate and Salmonella Typhi Vi). Anti-polysaccharide immune response was not affected by the number of saccharides per GMMA particle. However, lower saccharide loading can better preserve the immunogenicity of GMMA as antigen. In contrast, saccharide length needs to be optimized for each specific antigen. Interestingly, GMMA conjugates induced strong functional immune response even when the polysaccharides were linked to sugars on GMMA. We also verified that GMMA conjugates elicit a T-dependent humoral immune response to polysaccharides that is strictly dependent on the nature of the polysaccharide. The results obtained are important to design novel glycoconjugate vaccines using GMMA as carrier and support the development of multicomponent glycoconjugate vaccines where GMMA can play the dual role of carrier and antigen. In addition, this work provides significant insights into the mechanism of action of glycoconjugates.Immunoregulatory receptors are essential for orchestrating an immune response as well as appropriate inflammation in infectious and non-communicable diseases. Among them, leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptors (LILRs) consist of activating and inhibitory receptors that play an important role in regulating immune responses modulating the course of disease progression. On the one hand, inhibitory LILRs constitute a safe-guard system that mitigates the inflammatory response, allowing a prompt return to immune homeostasis. On the other hand, because of their unique capacity to attenuate immune responses, pathogens use inhibitory LILRs to evade immune recognition, thus facilitating their persistence within the host. Conversely, the engagement of activating LILRs triggers immune responses and the production of inflammatory mediators to fight microbes. However, their heightened activation could lead to an exacerbated immune response and persistent inflammation with major consequences on disease outcome and autoimmune disorders. Here, we review the genetic organisation, structure and ligands of LILRs as well as their role in regulating the immune response and inflammation. We also discuss the LILR-based strategies that pathogens use to evade immune responses. A better understanding of the contribution of LILRs to host-pathogen interactions is essential to define appropriate treatments to counteract the severity and/or persistence of pathogens in acute and chronic infectious diseases lacking efficient treatments.<br /><br /> Antibodies against carbamylated proteins (anti-CarP) are associated with poor prognosis and the development of bone erosions in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). RA neutrophils externalize modified autoantigens through the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Increased levels of the cathelicidin LL37 have been documented in the synovium of RA patients, but the cellular source remains unclear. We sought to determine if post-translational modifications of LL37, specifically carbamylation, occur during NET formation, enhance this protein's autoantigenicity, and contribute to drive bone erosion in the synovial joint.<br /><br /> ELISA and Western blot analyses were used to identify carbamylated LL37 (carLL37) in biological samples. Anti-carLL37 antibodies were measured in the serum of HLA-DRB1*0401 transgenic mice and in human RA synovial fluid.<br /><br /> Elevated levels of carLL37 were found in plasma and synovial fluid from RA patients, compared to healthy controls. RA NETs release carLL37 and fibroblast-like synoviocysregulated NET formation has pathogenic roles in RA.Allogeneic stem cell transplantation (alloSCT) is a curative therapy for hematopoietic malignancies. The therapeutic effect relies on donor T cells and NK cells to recognize and eliminate malignant cells, known as the graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) effect. However, off target immune pathology, known as graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) remains a major complication of alloSCT that limits the broad application of this therapy. The presentation of recipient-origin alloantigen to donor T cells is the primary process initiating GVHD and GVL. Therefore, the understanding of spatial and temporal characteristics of alloantigen presentation is pivotal to attempts to separate beneficial GVL effects from detrimental GVHD. In this review, we discuss mouse models and the tools therein, that permit the quantification of alloantigen presentation after alloSCT.Escherichia coli is one of the most important pathogens that cause clinical mastitis in dairy cattle worldwide and lead to severe economic losses. Antibiotics are often used to treat this inflammatory disease; however, antimicrobial resistance and environmental pollution cannot be ignored. Probiotic is the best alternative; however, its mechanisms of action to prevent mastitis remain unclear. Moreover, the role of probiotics in regulating mitophagy, a selective autophagy that maintains mitochondrial quality, needs to be explored. E. coli infection induced NOD-like receptor family member pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome assembly, Caspase-1 activation, and apoptosis in MAC-T cells. Infection also resulted in mitochondrial damage and subsequent increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Moreover, inhibition of ROS release by scavenger N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) abrogated the importance of ROS in NLRP3 assembly and apoptosis in MAC-T cells. Pretreatment with Lactobacillus rhamnosusupregulation of mitophagy under E. coli-induced mastitis may preserve mitochondrial function and provide theoretical support for the application of probiotics in bovine mastitis.In addition to its antimicrobial activity, the skin-derived antimicrobial peptide human β-defensin-3 (hBD-3) promotes keratinocyte proliferation and migration to initiate the wound healing process; however, its effects on fibroblasts, which are the major cell type responsible for wound healing, remain unclear. We investigated the role of hBD-3 in cell migration, proliferation and production of angiogenic growth factors in human fibroblasts and evaluated the in vivo effect of hBD-3 on promoting wound healing and angiogenesis. Following hBD-3 treatment, the mouse wounds healed faster and showed accumulation of neutrophils and macrophages in the early phase of wound healing and reduction of these phagocytes 4 days later. hBD-3-treated wounds also displayed an increased number of fibroblasts and newly formed vessels compared to those of the control mice. Furthermore, the expression of various angiogenic growth factors was increased in the hBD-3-treated wounds. Additionally, in vitro studies demonstrated that hBD-3 enhanced the secretion of angiogenic growth factors such as fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor and induced the migration and proliferation of human fibroblasts. The hBD-3-mediated activation of fibroblasts involves the fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1)/Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathways, as evidenced by the inhibitory effects of pathway-specific inhibitors. We indeed confirmed that hBD-3 enhanced the phosphorylation of FGFR1, JAK2 and STAT3. Collectively, the current study provides novel evidence that hBD-3 might be a potential candidate for the treatment of wounds through its ability to promote wound healing, angiogenesis and fibroblast activation.